The Battle of Dorostol and other great battles in the history of Rus' that have been forgotten.

Battle of Poltava They say that history and time sooner or later put everything in its place. Years and centuries pass, and gradually all the i's are dotted, and then we know that white is white, and black is black, we know who is right and who is wrong, who

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“Everything new is just well-forgotten old,” says folk wisdom. This proverb often works in military affairs. One of the most striking examples is associated with the campaign of the Russian prince Svyatoslav in 971. In the Battle of Dorostol, the Russians successfully brought back from oblivion a tactical discovery of the ancient Greeks - a dismounted phalanx of spearmen. Svyatoslav’s opponents, the Byzantines, had numerical superiority and strong cavalry, but they were unable to crush the tactics invented one and a half thousand years before Dorostol.

The Russian prince Svyatoslav (reign: 945-972) went down in history as an extraordinary warrior and commander. It was his campaigns that destroyed the Khazar Kaganate - a strong state in the Caspian Sea, which constantly threatened the southern and eastern borders Kievan Rus. In 967, the prince, wanting to expand the borders of his possessions (his interest was primarily in control of trade routes), begins his first campaign in Bulgaria. The campaign, supported by the nomadic Pechenegs under the neutrality of Byzantium, led by Emperor Nicephorus Phocas (there is a version that it was the Byzantines who wanted to weaken Bulgaria with the hands of Svyatoslav), was successful. Svyatoslav even intended to move the capital to the city of Pereyaslavets, which he captured, about which, as the Russian “Tale of Bygone Years” tells, he directly declared to his mother, Princess Olga: “I don’t like to sit in Kiev, I want to live in Pereyaslavets on the Danube - for there is the middle of the earth mine, all the good things flow there: from the Greek land - gold, grass, wine, various fruits, from the Czech Republic and Hungary, silver and horses, from Rus', furs and wax, honey and slaves.

Svyatoslav's campaigns in Bulgaria. The circle marks the area of ​​military operations with Byzantium in 971 - from Pereyaslavets to Dorostol.

However, subsequent events completely upended these plans. At first, the former allies, the Pechenegs, who were unlikely to like Svyatoslav’s expansionist intentions, took advantage of the fact that Kyiv was left unprotected and tried to take the Russian capital. The raid was repelled, but Svyatoslav was forced to return with his army to Rus' in order to secure Kyiv. There, too, he did not receive the warmest welcome - the people of Kiev blamed the prince for leaving them to be torn to pieces by the steppe inhabitants. In the meantime, a coup d'état took place in Byzantium itself: Nikephoros Phocas was overthrown and killed, and the throne was taken by John Tzimiskes, a talented military leader, favorite of the wife of the deceased Emperor Theophano.

Returning to the Danube, Svyatoslav discovered that the situation had changed dramatically not in his favor. “Greeks,” as the Russian chronicles call the Byzantines (they themselves called themselves “Romans,” i.e., Romans), actively ousted the Russians from Bulgaria. In response, the Russian prince with a 30,000-strong army, which, by the way, included Hungarian allies and the Pecheneg tribes that remained loyal to the Russians, invaded Byzantium in 970. The prince moved to Adrianople, where he met the Roman army. Each side subsequently attributed victory in the battle to itself, so we can only state that the opponents suffered serious losses and this forced them to agree to a truce.

Kyiv Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich. Illustration based on descriptions of contemporaries (in particular, the Byzantine historian Leo the Deacon).

The respite was short-lived. Already in the spring of 971, the Byzantines, taking advantage of the fact that Svyatoslav did not occupy the mountain passes through the Balkans and did not leave a barrier on the Danube, again brought their troops to Bulgaria. The Romans quickly convinced the local population that living under the hands of a rich and cultural empire was much better than submitting to a conqueror from Rus'. Svyatoslav and his army were left alone in hostile territory against strong army Tzimiskes. The Byzantines managed to take Pereyaslavets, and the main forces of the Russians, led by the prince, were locked in a siege in the Dorostol fortress.

From a strategic point of view, the situation for Svyatoslav became almost hopeless. The only thing he could count on was the fact that Tzimisces had recently taken the throne, and his position in the empire was still quite precarious. The Russians needed not only to organize a stubborn, protracted defense, but also to properly beat up the emperor’s troops in order to cause a quiet murmur behind his back. In addition, a successful field battle provided a chance to break through the siege ring. True, this required a decisive victory: in a post about the deeds of another Russian prince, Oleg, I already mentioned that the Russian army, which went on long voyages on boats, was exclusively on foot due to the characteristics of these ships.

In general, the prince, we must give him his due, understood the situation well, which ultimately allowed him to save the army. The siege of Dorostol lasted three months, from April 23 to July 22, and the Russian army regularly staged forays. But it was not possible to break the siege - the problem was that as soon as the Russian infantry left the walls, it immediately found itself in danger of encirclement. The last and decisive battle began on the morning of July 22: the Russian prince withdrew almost all the forces available to him from the fortress - about 20 thousand people. Tzimiskes' troops numbered more than twice as many, and in addition, the Byzantines had strong cavalry.

Battle of Dorostol. Scheme of the battle.

To compensate for the inequality of forces, the Russian prince used a Greek tactical technique against the “Greeks”. The Byzantine writer and historian Leo the Deacon, a contemporary of these events, writes that the Russians lined up, “closed shields and spears, like a wall.” A reader familiar with previous blog posts will probably immediately understand what we are talking about: this is the famous Greek and Macedonian phalanx, invented one and a half thousand years before Dorostol!

I note that Svyatoslav not only borrowed this technique from his own opponents, but also improved it. The Russian phalanx was built in two lines: the first, of ten rows, delivered a ramming attack, and the second guarded the traditionally most vulnerable places of the formation - the flanks and rear: upon the first order, the soldiers turned around and repelled the enemy’s attack. But still, Svyatoslav could not completely overcome the shortcomings of the phalanx - some clumsiness and vulnerability during outflanking maneuvers of the enemy, and the battle of Dorostol confirmed this.

Initially, success accompanied the Russians. Even Leo the Deacon admits that the powerful blow of the phalanx noticeably pushed back the Byzantine infantry. If it were not for the personal intervention of Tzimiskes, who with a detachment of horsemen stopped the retreat, Svyatoslav could even count on victory. But it was not possible to completely overthrow the “Greeks”; moreover, the advancing Russian troops moved away from the fortress. The Byzantines immediately took advantage of this: their cavalry made a quick flanking maneuver and surrounded the Russians.

Episode of the Battle of Dorostol: Russian phalanx against Byzantine cavalry. Modern illustration.

It was Svyatoslav’s turn to demonstrate his ability to command troops on the battlefield. This is where the very improvement of the phalanx that the Russian prince came up with came in handy. The second line of phalangites delayed the cavalry attack and allowed the Russians to rebuild into a perimeter defense. The encirclement from the rear was quite weak, so Svyatoslav logically decided to strike towards the fortress. The Russian army broke through the enemy's ranks and retreated back to Dorostol. The battle ended in a draw.

Lev Deacon writes that approximately 15 thousand Russians and only about 300 Byzantines fell in the battle. The figures are more than dubious: with such a defeat, Svyatoslav could only surrender to the mercy of the winner! However, there was no talk of any capitulation: the Russian prince proposed peace negotiations, and Tzimiskes accepted his offer. The latter fact indirectly indicates that the army of the Byzantine emperor was also pretty battered, otherwise what prevented him from finishing off Svyatoslav’s troops and taking the fortress? The peace conditions were quite acceptable for the Russians: they were guaranteed free passage to their homeland and even provisions, in exchange for an obligation not to fight with Byzantium. True, the conquered Bulgarian lands also had to be abandoned, while eastern Bulgaria went to Tzimiskes. Nevertheless, this is not at all a bad outcome for the conflict, which threatened Svyatoslav with the defeat and death of the entire army!

Prince Svyatoslav and Emperor John Tzimiskes at negotiations. From a painting by artist V.K. Lebedeva.

Further events are well known from history books. Returning to Rus', Svyatoslav the following year, 972, was attacked by the Pechenegs on the Dnieper rapids and died along with his squad. Only part of the army under the command of Voivode Sveneld, who chose a roundabout route, managed to reach Kyiv. Russian chroniclers accused the “insidious Greeks” of conspiring with the Pechenegs, but the modern historian and ethnographer Lev Gumilyov rightly points out that the Byzantines, if they really needed Svyatoslav’s life, could have destroyed him before he had yet crossed the borders of the empire. But in Kyiv itself, it was quite possible that there were influential groups that did not want to see Svyatoslav on the throne: after all, the prince publicly declared that he did not need the “mother of Russian cities”! Or the Pechenegs themselves simply took advantage of the opportunity to attack - the exact answer will probably never be received.

Interesting fact. The decisive battle of Dorostol took place on July 22 and was largely due to the Pechenegs’ attack on the capital of the Russian principalities, Kyiv. Exactly 970 years after this, on July 22, 1941, another capital was attacked: on this day, Nazi aircraft carried out their first raid on Moscow.

Air defense of Moscow during a German air raid.

Second war with Byzantium

The first stage of the war with the Byzantine Empire ended in victory for Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich. Constantinople had to pay tribute and agree to the consolidation of Russian positions in the Danube region. Constantinople resumed paying annual tribute to Kyiv. Svyatoslav was satisfied with the success achieved and released the allied troops of the Pechenegs and Hungarians. Russian troops were mainly located at Dorostol. A new war was not expected in the near future; no one was guarding the mountain passes.

However, Constantinople was not going to adhere to peace. The Romans viewed the peace agreement only as a respite, a military ploy that made it possible to lull the enemy’s vigilance and mobilize all forces. The Greeks acted according to their old principle: if you get peace, get ready for war. This tactic of the Byzantine Empire was formulated by its commander XI Kekaumen in his work “Strategikon”. He wrote: “If the enemy eludes you day after day, promising either to make peace or to pay tribute, know that he is waiting for help from somewhere or wants to fool you. If the enemy sends you gifts and offerings, if you want, take them, but know that he does this not out of love for you, but wanting to buy your blood for it.” Numerous truces and peaces concluded by Constantinople with surrounding states and peoples, their payment of tributes and indemnities were often necessary only to gain time, outwit the enemy, deceive him, and then deliver a sudden blow.

The stay of the Rus on the Danube and, most importantly, the alliance of Bulgaria with Russia, completely contradicted the strategy of Byzantium. The union of the two Slavic powers was very dangerous for Byzantium and could lead to the loss of Balkan possessions. The Byzantine emperor John Tzimiskes was actively preparing for a new war. Troops were pulled up from the Asian provinces. Military exercises were held near the walls of the capital. Food and equipment were prepared. The fleet is prepared for the campaign, about 300 ships in total. In March 971, John I Tzimiskes reviewed the fleet, which was armed with “Greek fire.” The fleet was supposed to block the mouth of the Danube in order to stop the actions of the Russian boat flotilla.

Battle of Preslav

In the spring, the basileus, together with the guards (“immortals”), set out on a campaign. The main forces of the Byzantine army were already concentrated in Adrianople. Having learned that the mountain passes were clear, John decided to strike the Bulgarian capital, and then defeat Svyatoslav. Thus, the Byzantine army had to defeat the enemy troops piece by piece, preventing them from uniting. In the vanguard was a phalanx of warriors, completely covered with armor (“immortals”), followed by 15 thousand selected infantry and 13 thousand horsemen. The rest of the troops were commanded by Proedr Vasily, he walked with a convoy, carrying siege and other vehicles. Despite the fears of the commanders, the troops crossed the mountains easily and without resistance. On April 12, Byzantine troops approached Preslav.

In the Bulgarian capital there was Tsar Boris, his court, Kalokir and the Russian detachment under the command of Sfenkel. Leo the Deacon calls him “third in dignity after Sfendoslav” (the second was Ikmor). Another Byzantine chronicler, John Skylitzes, called him by the name Svangel and was considered “second in dignity.” Some researchers identify Sfenkel with Sveneld. But Sveneld survived this war, and Sfenkel fell in battle. Despite the surprise of the enemy’s appearance, the “Tavro-Scythians” lined up in battle formation and struck the Greeks. Initially, neither side could gain the upper hand, only a flank attack by the “immortals” turned the situation around. The Rus retreated beyond the city walls. The garrison of Preslav repulsed the first assault. The rest of the forces and siege engines approached the Romans. At night, Kalokir fled from Preslav to Dorostol. In the morning the assault was resumed. The Russians and Bulgarians desperately defended themselves, throwing spears, darts and stones from the walls. The Romans fired at the walls using stone-throwing machines and threw pots of “Greek fire” into the city. The defenders suffered heavy losses, but held out. However, the superiority of forces was clearly on the side of the Greeks, and they were able to take the external fortifications.

The remnants of the Russian-Bulgarian forces entrenched themselves in the royal palace. The Romans stormed into the city, killing and robbing the inhabitants. The royal treasury, which was safe and sound during the Rus' stay in the city, was also plundered. At the same time, the Bulgarian Tsar Boris was captured with his children and wife. John I Tzimiskes hypocritically told him that he had come “to avenge the Misians (as the Greeks called the Bulgarians), who suffered terrible disasters from the Scythians.”

The Russian troops defending the palace repulsed the first assault, and the Romans suffered heavy losses. Having learned about this failure, the basileus ordered his guard to attack the Rus with all their might. However, seeing that an attack in the narrow passage of the gate would cause heavy losses, he recalled his troops and ordered the palace to be set on fire. When a strong flame flared up, the remaining Rus troops came out into the open and launched a final furious attack. The Emperor sent Master Varda Skleros against them. The Roman phalanx surrounded the Rus. As even Leo the Deacon noted, writing about thousands of killed “Scythians” and a few Greeks, “the Dews desperately resisted, without showing their backs to the enemies,” but were doomed. Only Sfenkel with the remnants of his squad was able to cut through the enemy ranks and went to Dorostol. The remaining warriors pinned down the enemy in battle and died the death of the brave. In the same battle, many Bulgarians, who fought on the side of the Rus to the last, also fell.

The Greeks storm Preslav. A stone thrower is shown as a siege weapon. Miniature from the chronicle of John Skylitzes.

Defense of Dorostol

Having left Preslava, the basileus left a sufficient garrison there, and the fortifications were restored. The city was renamed Ioannopolis. The period of occupation of Bulgaria by Byzantine troops began. After some time, the emperor, at a solemn ceremony, will deprive Tsar Boris of his royal regalia, and eastern Bulgaria will come under the direct control of Constantinople. The Greeks wanted to completely liquidate the Bulgarian kingdom, but Byzantium was unable to subjugate western part Bulgaria, where an independent state was formed. In order to lure the Bulgarians to his side and destroy the Bulgarian-Russian alliance, Tzimiskes, in the destroyed and plundered Preslav, announced that he was fighting not with Bulgaria, but with Russia, and wanted to take revenge for the insults inflicted by Svyatoslav on the Bulgarian kingdom. This was a monstrous lie common to the Byzantines. The Greeks actively waged an “information war,” declaring black to be white and white to be black, and rewritten in their favor.

On April 17, the Byzantine army quickly marched towards Dorostol. Emperor John I Tzimiskes sent several prisoners to Prince Svyatoslav with a demand to surrender, surrender to the victors and, asking for forgiveness “for his insolence,” to immediately leave Bulgaria. The cities between Preslava and Dorostol, which did not have Russian garrisons, capitulated without a fight. The Bulgarian feudal lords joined Tzimiskes. The Romans marched through Bulgaria as invaders; the emperor gave the occupied cities and fortresses to the soldiers for plunder. John Kourkuas distinguished himself in robbery Christian churches.

Byzantine Emperor John Tzimisces returns to Constantinople after defeating the Bulgarians.

Svyatoslav Igorevich found himself in a difficult situation. The enemy was able to deliver a sudden and treacherous blow. Bulgaria was largely occupied and could not field significant forces to fight the invaders. The allies were released, so Svyatoslav had little cavalry. Until now, Svyatoslav Igorevich himself attacked and had the strategic initiative. Now he had to hold the line, and even in a situation where the enemy had all the trump cards. However, Prince Svyatoslav was not one of those who surrender to the mercy of fate. He decided to try his luck in a decisive battle, hoping to break the enemy with a fierce onslaught and turn the situation in his favor with one battle.

Leo Deacon reports 60 thousand. Russian army. He's clearly lying. The Russian chronicle reports that Svyatoslav had only 10 thousand soldiers, which is apparently closer to the truth, given the outcome of the war. In addition, the Rus were supported by a number of Bulgarians. From 60 thousand Svyatoslav's army would have reached Constantinople. In addition, Leo the Deacon reported that in the battle for Preslav the Romans killed 15-16 thousand “Scythians”. But here too we see a strong exaggeration. Such an army could hold out until Svyatoslav’s main forces arrived. There was a small detachment in Preslav, which could not provide a tight defense of the fortifications of the Bulgarian capital. It is enough to compare the defense of Preslava and Dorostol. Having apparently about 20 thousand soldiers in Dorostol, Svyatoslav gave the enemy battles and held out for three months. If there were about 15 thousand soldiers in Preslav, they would also have held out for at least a month. It is also necessary to take into account that Svyatoslav’s army was constantly declining. The Hungarian and Pecheneg allies did not have time to come to his aid. And Rus', in the words of the Russian prince himself, “is far away, and the neighboring barbarian peoples, fearing the Romans, did not agree to help them.” The Byzantine army had the opportunity to constantly replenish itself, it was well supplied with food and fodder. It could be strengthened by ship crews.

On April 23, the Byzantine army approached Dorostol. In front of the city lay a plain suitable for battle. Ahead of the army were strong patrols, inspecting the area. The Greeks feared the ambushes for which the Slavs were famous. However, the Romans lost the first battle; one of their troops was ambushed and completely destroyed. When the Byzantine army reached the city, the Rus built a “wall” and prepared for the battle. Svyatoslav knew that the striking force of the Byzantine army was heavily armed cavalry. He opposed her with a dense formation of infantry: the Russians closed their shields and bristled with spears. The emperor also formed the infantry into a phalanx, placed archers and slingers behind, and cavalry on the flanks.

The warriors of the two armies fought hand-to-hand, and a fierce battle ensued. Both sides fought for a long time with equal tenacity. Svyatoslav fought together with his soldiers. Tzimiskes, who led the battle from a nearby hill, sent his best warriors to make their way to the Russian leader and kill him. But they were all killed either by Svyatoslav himself or by the soldiers of his close squad. “The Rosses, who among neighboring peoples had gained the glory of constant victors in battles,” over and over again repelled the onslaught of the Roman hoplites. The Romans were “overcome with shame and anger” because they, experienced warriors, could retreat like beginners. Therefore, both troops “fought with unsurpassed courage; the dews, guided by their innate brutality and rage, rushed in a furious impulse, roaring as if possessed, towards the Romans (Leo the Deacon tries to belittle the “barbarians”, but in fact describes an element of the military psychotechnics of the Russians. - Author’s note), and the Romans advanced, using my experience and military art."

The battle continued with varying success until the evening. The Romans could not realize their numerical advantage. In the evening, the basileus gathered the cavalry into a fist and threw it into the attack. However, this attack was also unsuccessful. The Roman “knights” were unable to break the formation of the Russian infantry. After this, Svyatoslav Igorevich withdrew the troops behind the walls. The battle ended without decisive success for the Romans or Rus. Svyatoslav was unable to defeat the enemy in a decisive battle, and the Romans were unable to realize their advantage in numbers and cavalry.

The siege of the fortress began. The Greeks built a fortified camp on a hill near Dorostol. They dug a ditch around the hill, built a rampart, and reinforced it with a palisade. On April 24, the troops exchanged fire with bows, slings and throwing weapons. At the end of the day, a Russian equestrian squad rode out of the gate. Leo the Deacon in “History” contradicts himself. He argued that the Rus did not know how to fight on horseback. Cataphracts (heavy cavalry) attacked the Rus, but were unsuccessful. After a heated fight, the parties separated.

On the same day, the Byzantine fleet approached Dorostol from the Danube and blocked the fortress (according to other sources, it arrived on April 25 or 28). However, the Russians were able to save their boats and carried them in their arms to the walls, under the protection of the archers. The Romans did not dare to attack along the river bank and burn or destroy Russian ships. The situation for the fortress garrison worsened; Roman ships blocked the river so that the Rus could not retreat along the river. The possibilities for supplying troops with provisions were sharply narrowed.

On April 26, the second significant battle took place near Dorostol. Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich again led his troops into the field and imposed battle on the enemy. Both sides fought fiercely, alternately pushing each other back. On this day, according to Leo the Deacon, the valiant and enormous governor Sfenkel fell. According to Deacon, after the death of their hero, the Rus retreated to the city. However, according to the Byzantine historian Georgiy Kedrin, the Russian soldiers retained the battlefield and remained on it all night from April 26 to 27. Only by noon, when Tzimiskes had deployed all his forces, the Russian soldiers calmly turned their formation and went into the city.

On April 28, a Byzantine convoy with metallurgical vehicles approached the fortress. Roman craftsmen began to set up numerous machines, ballistas, catapults that threw stones, pots with “Greek fire”, logs, and huge arrows. The shelling of throwing machines caused huge losses among the defenders of the fortresses and suppressed their morale, since they could not respond. Basileus wanted to move the machines to the walls. However, the Russian commander was able to forestall the enemy. On the night of April 29, Russian soldiers dug a deep and wide ditch at a distance from the fortress so that the enemy could not get close to the walls and install siege engines. Both sides engaged in a heated exchange of fire that day, but did not achieve any noticeable results.

Svyatoslav spoiled a lot of blood for the enemy with his ideas. That same night, the Russians succeeded in another idea. Taking advantage of the darkness, Russian warriors on boats, unnoticed by the enemy, passed through the shallow water between the shore and the enemy fleet. They obtained food for the army and on the way back they dispersed a detachment of Byzantine foragers and attacked enemy convoys. Many Byzantines were killed in the night massacre.

The siege of the fortress dragged on. Neither Tzimiskes nor Svyatoslav could achieve decisive success. Svyatoslav was unable to defeat the Byzantine army, which was a first-class fighting machine, in a series of battles. The lack of warriors affected and almost complete absence cavalry. Tzimiskes failed to defeat the Russian army and force Svyatoslav to capitulate in the face of superior forces.

Leo the Deacon noted the highest fighting spirit of Svyatoslav’s troops throughout the siege of Dorostol. The Greeks were able to overcome the ditch and bring their vehicles closer to the fortress. The Russians suffered heavy losses. The Greeks also lost thousands of people. And yet Dorostol held out. The Greeks found women among the killed Rus and Bulgarians who fought together with Svyatoslav’s soldiers. “Polyanitsy” (female heroes, heroines of the Russian epic) fought equally with men, did not surrender, and endured all difficulties and food shortages. This ancient Scythian-Russian tradition of women’s participation in wars will continue until the 20th century, until the Great Patriotic War. Russian women, together with men, met the enemy and fought with him to the last. Svyatoslav's warriors performed miracles of fortitude and heroism, defending the city for three months. Byzantine chroniclers also noted the custom of the Rus not to surrender to the enemy even when defeated. They preferred to kill themselves rather than be captured or slaughtered like cattle in a slaughterhouse.

The Byzantines strengthened their patrols and dug all the roads and paths with deep ditches. With the help of battering and throwing weapons, the Greeks destroyed the fortifications of the city. The garrison thinned out, many wounded appeared. Hunger became a big problem. However, the situation was difficult not only for the Rus, but also for the Romans. John I Tzimisces could not leave Dorostol, as this would be an admission of military defeat, and he could lose the throne. While he was besieging Dorostol, there were constant revolts in the empire, intrigues were woven and conspiracies arose. Thus, the brother of the murdered Emperor Nikephoros Phocas, Leo Kuropalates, rebelled. The coup attempt failed, but the situation was alarming. Tzimisces was absent from Constantinople for a long time and could not keep his finger on the pulse of the empire.

Svyatoslav decided to take advantage of this. The Russian commander decided to give the enemy a new battle with the goal of, if not defeating the enemy, then forcing him to negotiate, showing that the Russian army, which was under siege, was still strong and capable of holding out in the fortress for a long time. At noon on July 19, Russian troops dealt an unexpected blow to the Romans. The Greeks were sleeping at this time after a hearty lunch. The Russians chopped up and burned many catapults and ballistas. In this battle, a relative of the emperor, Master John Kurkuas, was killed.

The next day, Russian soldiers again went outside the walls, but in larger forces. The Greeks lined up in a “thick phalanx.” A fierce battle began. In this battle, one of the closest associates of the great Russian prince Svyatoslav, governor Ikmor, fell. Leo the Deacon reported that Ikmor, even among the Scythians, stood out for his gigantic stature, and with his detachment he defeated many Romans. He was hacked to death by one of the emperor's bodyguards, Anemas. The death of one of the leaders, and even on the Day of Perun, caused confusion in the ranks of the soldiers, the army retreated beyond the walls of the city.

Leo the Deacon noted the unity of the funeral customs of the Scythians and Rus. Reported the Scythian origin of Achilles. In his opinion, the clothes said so, appearance, habits and character (“extravagant irritability and cruelty”) of Achilles. The Russians contemporary to L. Deacon - the “Tavro-Scythians” - preserved these traditions. The Rus are "reckless, brave, warlike and powerful, they attack all neighboring tribes."

On July 21, Prince Svyatoslav convened a military council. The prince asked his people what to do. Some suggested leaving immediately, boarding the boats at night, since it was impossible to continue the war after losing the best warriors. Others suggested making peace with the Romans, since it would not be easy to hide the departure of an entire army, and Greek fire-carrying ships could burn the Russian flotilla. Then the Russian prince took a deep breath and exclaimed with bitterness: “The glory that marched behind the army of the Rus, who easily defeated neighboring peoples and enslaved entire countries without bloodshed, has perished, if we now shamefully retreat before the Romans. So, let us imbue ourselves with the courage that our ancestors bequeathed to us, remember that the power of the Rus has so far been indestructible, and we will fight fiercely for our lives. It is not proper for us to return to our homeland, fleeing; we must either win and survive, or die in glory, having accomplished feats worthy of valiant men!” According to Leo the Deacon, the soldiers were inspired by these words and happily decided to engage in a decisive battle with the Romans.

On July 22, the last decisive battle took place near Dorostol. In the morning the Russians went outside the walls. Svyatoslav ordered the gates to be locked so that there would be no thought of going back. The Russians themselves struck at the enemy and began to violently push back the Romans. Seeing the enthusiasm of Prince Svyatoslav, who cut through the enemy ranks like a simple warrior, Anemas decided to kill Svyatoslav. He rushed forward on his horse and struck a successful blow at Svyatoslav, but his strong chain mail saved him. Anemas was immediately struck down by Russian warriors.

The Rus continued their attack, and the Romans, unable to withstand the onslaught of the “barbarians,” began to retreat. Seeing that the Byzantine phalanx could not withstand the battle, Tzimiskes personally led the guard - the “immortals” - into a counterattack. At the same time, heavy cavalry units launched strong attacks on the Russian flanks. This somewhat straightened the situation, but the Russians continued their offensive. Lev the Deacon calls their onslaught “monstrous.” Both sides suffered heavy losses, but the bloody battle continued. The battle ended in the most unexpected way. Heavy clouds hung over the city. A strong thunderstorm began, a gusty wind, raising clouds of sand, hit the Russian soldiers in the face. Then a heavy downpour came. Russian troops had to take refuge behind the walls of the city. The Greeks attributed the violence of the elements to divine intercession.

Peaceful agreement

In the morning, Svyatoslav, who was wounded in this battle, invited Tzimiskes to make peace. Basileus, amazed by the previous battle and wanting to end the war as soon as possible and return to Constantinople, willingly accepted this offer. Both commanders met on the Danube and agreed on peace. The Romans allowed Svyatoslav's soldiers through without hindrance and gave them bread for the journey. Svyatoslav agreed to leave the Danube. Dorostol (the Romans called it Feodoropol) was abandoned by the Rus. All prisoners were handed over to the Greeks. Rus' and Byzantium returned to the norms of the treaties of 907-944. According to Greek authors, the parties agreed to consider themselves “friends.” This meant that the conditions for the payment of tribute by Constantinople to Kyiv were restored. This is also stated in the Russian chronicle. In addition, Tzimiskes had to send ambassadors to the friendly Pechenegs so that they would not obstruct the Russian troops.

Thus, Svyatoslav avoided military defeat, peace was honorable. The prince planned to continue the war. According to the Tale of Bygone Years, the prince said: “I’ll go to Rus' and bring more troops.”

To be continued…

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The Greeks storm Preslav. A stone thrower is shown as a siege weapon. Miniature from the chronicle of John Skylitzes.

Defense of Dorostol - battles in April-July 971 between the Russian army and the army of the Byzantine Empire at the Dorostol fortress, which ended a series of campaigns of Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich to Bulgaria and Byzantium. As a result of the battles, Prince Svyatoslav was forced to make peace with Byzantium and leave the Balkans.

Background

As a result of the fighting in 970, having received tribute and concluding a peace treaty with Byzantium (according to Sakharov, the peace treaty and the tribute paid were only a distracting maneuver of the Byzantines; medieval sources mention only the peace treaty of 971, which put an end to the entire war) Svyatoslav returned to Pereyaslavets . The reason for this was large losses among the troops and the small number of the remaining combat-ready squad:

“As if by some cunning they would not kill both my squad and me”... since many died in battles... “I’ll go to Rus' and bring more squads... If we don’t make peace with the tsar and the tsar finds out that there are few of us, then they will come and will besiege us in the city. But the Russian land is far away, and the Pechenegs are hostile to us, and who will help us? Let us make peace with the tsar: after all, they have already committed to pay us tribute, that will be enough for us. If they stop paying us tribute, then again from Rus', having gathered many soldiers, we will go to Constantinople."

The further course of military operations is unknown to the Russian chronicler. According to one version, Svyatoslav sent to Rus' for reinforcements for his army. According to some authors, small reinforcements arrived from Kyiv to Svyatoslav, since he himself did not leave for a new squad and continued for several months to make small raids on the Byzantines in Thrace.

In November 970, the rebellion of Bardas Phocas the Younger was suppressed in Byzantium, and government troops under the command of Bardas Skleros returned to Macedonia and Thrace, where they settled in winter quarters.

In April 971, Emperor John Tzimiskes personally led a campaign to Bulgaria against Svyatoslav, who did not take defensive measures. On April 10, the ground army unhindered overcame the mountain passes and suddenly appeared near Preslav, the capital of the Bulgarians, allies of Svyatoslav. At the same time, 300 ships of the Byzantine fleet, armed with Greek fire, headed to the mouth of the Danube to cut off the Russians’ path to retreat and prevent reinforcements from approaching from the left bank of the river.

Svyatoslav's lack of strength and the suddenness of the Byzantine attack led to the fact that he did not have time to take the necessary precautions. He did not occupy the Balkan passes, left the mouth of the Danube open, divided his army, but even in this way he could not allocate enough forces to cover Preslav. So the main forces of the Rus were in Dorostol, and the detachment under the command of Sfenkel was located in Preslav (the Bulgarian Tsar Boris II was also located there).

Battle of Preslav

At dawn on April 13, the Byzantine army, forming in “dense ranks,” began to approach Preslav. The Russians managed to line up in battle formation, covering themselves with large shields up to their toes, and they themselves rushed at the Greeks. The battle was stubborn without a clear advantage for the sides, until the emperor ordered the guard of the “immortals” to attack the left flank of the Rus. Unable to withstand the pressure of the armored cavalry, the Russians retreated to the fortress. The next day, siege weapons approached the Greeks, and they attacked Preslav. On April 14, the Byzantines burst into the city and captured the Bulgarian Tsar Boris, and the Rus retreated to royal palace with a fence. The Greeks set it on fire, smoking out the Rus who had settled there. They were forced to go out into the open, where the Greeks surrounded them and, in a stubborn battle, destroyed almost everyone. However, a small part of the army under the command of Voivode Sfenkel managed to escape to Dorostol, where Svyatoslav was located with the main forces.

After the celebration of Easter on April 17, John Tzimiskes moved towards Dorostol, occupying along the way a number of Bulgarian cities, “which broke away from the Rus and stuck to the Romans.” On April 23, the Byzantine army approached Dorostol, where Svyatoslav’s main forces with a boat fleet were located.

Spartan Hoplite

Strengths of the parties

Leo the Deacon claims that during the transition of the Balkans, Tzimiskes had 15 thousand hoplites and 13 thousand horsemen, in addition, a selected detachment of “immortals” and a large convoy with other troops, and Svyatoslav had 60 thousand people on his campaign to Bulgaria. In his opinion, the Russians still had 60 thousand soldiers near Dorostol.

According to Skylitzes, Tzimisces captured the passes with a detachment of 5 thousand infantry and 4 thousand horsemen, followed by “the rest of the multitude of warriors.”

According to N. Shefov, at Dorostol, the Byzantine troops numbered 40-45 thousand people, including 15 thousand cavalry, and the troops of Svyatoslav - about 20 thousand people.

The Hungarian and Pecheneg allies, apparently, had abandoned Svyatoslav by this time and did not have time to come to his aid. This confirms the message of Skilitsa that Svyatoslav in Dorostol did not hope for “any help”, that “their own country was very far away, and the neighboring barbarian peoples, fearing the Romans, did not agree to help them” and the tale of bygone years: “And Ruska The land is far away, and the Pechenesi are with us as warriors, and who can help us?”

Defense of Dorostol

On April 23, the first battle took place, which began after a Russian ambush attacked a small advance detachment of the Byzantines. They destroyed this detachment, but they themselves died.

The Rus were expecting the main forces of the Byzantines on the near approaches to Dorostol, “closed shields and spears, like a wall.” The battle formation of the Byzantine army consisted of two lines: in the first line there was infantry in the center, and on the flanks were mounted men-at-arms, which made up two wings; In the second line, continuously shooting archers and slingers lined up. In a stubborn battle, the Rus repelled 12 attacks by the Byzantines. In the evening, Tsimikhsy, having gathered all his cavalry, threw it against the exhausted Russians, which forced them to take refuge behind the walls of Dorostol.

On April 24, the Byzantines erected a fortified camp near Dorostol, set up tents on a small hill, dug a deep ditch around it and poured an earthen rampart on which they stuck spears into the ground and hung shields on them.

On April 25 (according to other sources, April 28), the Byzantine fleet approached Dorostol from the Danube and blocked the city. Svyatoslav ordered to pull his boats ashore so that they would not be burned by the enemy. On the same day, Tzimiskes approached the city, but the Russians did not go into the field, but only threw stones and arrows from the walls and towers at the enemy. Soon the Byzantines returned to the camp. By evening, Svyatoslav's squad on horseback set out from the city, but Tzimiskes did not dare to attack Svyatoslav's squad, and it returned to Dorostol.

On April 26, the second battle took place near Dorostol. Svyatoslav's army went out into the field and lined up on foot in their chain mail armor and helmets, closing long shields that reached their feet and putting out spears. The Byzantines attacked the Rus, after which a stubborn battle ensued, in which the governor Sfenkel died. According to the Byzantine historian Kedrin, the Rus retained the battlefield and remained there all night from April 26 to 27. The next morning the battle resumed. By noon, Tzimiskes sent a detachment to the rear of the Russians. Fearing that they would be cut off from the city, Svyatoslav’s squad retreated behind the fortress walls.

Siege of Dorostol

On the night of April 29, the Russians dug a deep ditch around Dorostol so that the besiegers could not get close to the fortress wall and install siege engines.

That same night, taking advantage of the darkness, the Russians on boats made their first big foray for food. Returning back with the loot, they noticed a detachment of Byzantines on the bank of the Danube, watering horses in the Danube and collecting firewood on the bank. The Rus attacked the Byzantines and dispersed them.

On the same day, the Byzantines dug up all the roads into the city with deep ditches and strengthened their patrols. Over the next three months, the Rus did not leave the city, and the Byzantines, using battering and throwing weapons, destroyed the fortress walls and killed its defenders.

Famine began in the city, the Bulgarians began to go over to the side of the Byzantines. Svyatoslav, realizing that if they all went over to the side of Tzimiskes, then his affairs would end badly, he was forced to begin repressions - he executed about 300 “Misians famous for their birth and wealth” in Dorostol, and imprisoned the rest.

John Tzimisces was not interested in a long siege, since in his absence there had already been an unsuccessful coup attempt in Constantinople. To speed things up, he, according to Skilitsa, suggested that Svyatoslav resolve the war by a duel between them:

Seeing that the situation was worsening, on July 19, Svyatoslav organized a large sortie with the aim of destroying the enemy’s siege and battering machines. Unexpectedly, after lunch, when the Byzantines were not expecting an attack, a detachment of Rus attacked the enemy and burned all the siege structures, killing the head of the siege engines.

B. A. Chorikov. Military Council of Svyatoslav

This success inspired Svyatoslav. On July 20, the Russians left the city and lined up for battle. The Byzantines lined up in a “thick phalanx.” The Rus successfully repelled the attacks of the Byzantines, but during one of them the Russian governor Ikmor was beheaded by Anemas, the bodyguard of Emperor John Tzimiskes, after which the squad “threw their shields behind their backs” and retreated to the city. Among the bodies of killed soldiers left on the battlefield, the Byzantines found the bodies of women, probably Bulgarian residents of Dorostol.

At the military council (comment) assembled on July 21, Svyatoslav’s opinions were divided - some suggested dark night break out of the city on boats, the other part advised to start peace negotiations. Then Svyatoslav made a speech given by Leo the Deacon:

“Glory, the companion of Russian weapons, which easily defeated neighboring peoples and, without shedding blood, conquered entire countries, will perish if we now shamefully yield to the Romans. And so, with the courage of our ancestors and with the thought that Russian strength has been invincible until now, let us fight courageously for our lives. We do not have the custom of fleeing to our fatherland, but either to live as victors or, having accomplished famous feats, to die with glory.”

After listening to their prince, the squad decided to fight.

On the morning of July 22, the Russians left Dorostol and Svyatoslav ordered the city walls to be locked so that no one would have the thought of retreating. The battle began with the Russians attacking the Byzantine positions. In a stubborn battle, by noon the Byzantines began to retreat under the pressure of the Rus. Then Tzimiskes brought a fresh detachment of horsemen into the battle, the attack of which he personally led. This allowed the tired Byzantines to rest. They went on the attack, but were repulsed by the Russians.

Then Tzimiskes divided his army into two parts. One detachment, under the command of patrician Roman and captain Peter, having entered the battle, began to retreat, luring a squad of Rus to an open plain away from the city. At this time, the second detachment under the command of Varda Sklir attacked the Rus from the rear. The storm that began at this time brought clouds of sand into the eyes of the Rus. Fighting bravely, repelling the constant attacks of the Byzantines, the Russians were able to break into Dorostol and take refuge behind its walls.

Losses

Leo Deacon reports that the Russians had 15 thousand killed in this battle, the Byzantines took 20 thousand shields and many swords, while the Byzantines allegedly had only 350 people killed and “many wounded.” There are doubts that these data are correct.

Consequences of the battle

The next day, Svyatoslav invited Tzimiskes to begin negotiations. The emperor willingly accepted this offer. On the banks of the Danube, Svyatoslav met with Tzimiskes. Svyatoslav undertook not to fight with Byzantium, and Tzimiskes had to let the Rus' boats through without hindrance and give two measures of bread to each warrior for the road. Leo the Deacon reports that there were 22 thousand people who received the bread. After this, Svyatoslav’s army went to Rus'. On the way to Kyiv, Prince Svyatoslav was killed by the Pechenegs.