Features of imperialism in the leading capitalist countries (the last third of the 19th - early 20th centuries)

1) The main trend in the development of the economy at the end of the XIX century. there was a transition from capitalism based on free competition of individual independent enterprises to capitalism based on monopoly or oligopoly. This transition was based on changes in the productive forces caused by the rapid development of science and technology in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, called the second technological revolution. The first technological revolution was the industrial revolution. The second technological revolution unfolded in the last third of the 19th century. and continued until the First World War (19I4-1918). The change in the energy base of production was of paramount importance: steam energy was replaced by electric energy, electrification began, and the technology for generating, transmitting and receiving electricity was developed. In the 80s of the XIX century. the steam turbine was invented, and as a result of its connection into a single unit with a dynamo machine, a turbogenerator was created. New industries emerged - electrochemistry, electrometallurgy, electric transport. Internal combustion engines appeared, powered by energy obtained from the combustion of gasoline and oil vapors. In 1885 the first car was built. The internal combustion engine began to be widely used in transport, in military equipment, and accelerated the mechanization of agriculture. The chemical industry made significant progress: the production of artificial (aniline) dyes, plastics, and artificial rubber began; new efficient technologies for the production of sulfuric acid, soda, etc. were developed. Mineral fertilizers began to be widely used in agriculture. The growth of industrial production and trade led to the development of transport. The power, traction force and speed of steam locomotives increased. Ship designs improved. The electrification of railway transport began, new vehicles appeared - tankers and airships. The technological revolution has changed the sectoral structure of industry. The branches of heavy industry came to the fore, significantly outstripping light industry in terms of growth rates. Structural shifts have caused a sharp increase in the minimum amount of capital required to create and operate a separate enterprise. Attracting additional capital was achieved through the issuance of shares and the creation of joint-stock companies. State property was formed in two main ways: at the expense of the state budget and the nationalization of private enterprises. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. the first way was more common in most countries of the Old World; the second was used in the countries of resettlement capitalism. Cooperative property arose on the basis of the voluntary pooling of capital and means of production of small commodity producers; served as a form of protecting them from the exploitation of intermediaries and big businessmen. From the middle of the XIX century. and until 1914, the main types of cooperation arose: consumer, credit, agricultural, housing. By the beginning of the First World War, Russia ranked first in the world in terms of the number of participants in the cooperative movement. Municipal property and economy arose in connection with the development of socio-economic infrastructure (transport, electricity, gas, schools, hospitals) in cities and rural areas in the last third of the 19th century. The enlargement of production, the complication of the structure of the economy led to the transition to a new form of organization of production - a monopoly. The formation of the world economy was accompanied by territorial expansion - the creation of colonial empires and the subordination of independent states. In the last quarter of the XIX century. the struggle of industrial states for territories in Asia, Africa, and the Pacific Ocean began. Great Britain, France, USA, Japan, smaller states - Belgium, Holland, Portugal, Spain - took part in colonial conquests and the creation of colonial empires. Many formally independent states in Asia, Africa and Latin America fell into the sphere of capital expansion. Thus, at the end of the XIX century. completed the process of formation of an industrial capitalist society in Western and Central Europe and North America. It was a zone of accelerated, "advanced" development of capitalism, its "first echelon". Eastern Europe, including Russia, and in Asia - Japan, embarked on the path of reforms, represented a zone of "catch-up development." The era of structural and institutional changes at the beginning of the 20th century. defined by the concept of "imperialism". Later, the term "monopoly capitalism" became more widespread. The Frankfurt Peace Treaty of 1871, which ended the Franco-Prussian War, did not lead to the stabilization of international relations in Europe. On the contrary, a powerful economic breakthrough in Germany allowed Bismarck in the 70-80s of the XIX century. fight for German hegemony in Europe. This is the reason for the policy of militarization of the country, the creation of a constant military threat, especially to France, as well as attempts to create pro-German military-political blocs. In 1898, Germany set about building a large navy in a direct challenge to Great Britain and other countries. In the last third of the XIX century. in Europe, the main contours of the opposing coalitions were outlined. They finally took shape at the beginning of the 20th century. and led the European nations to the First World War.

2) France

France, despite the defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, remained a great power with great economic opportunities, a huge colonial empire, a powerful army and a large navy, inferior, however, to the English. In terms of economic growth, France lagged behind Germany and the United States, and in terms of industrial production, it lagged behind England. In 1870-1871. France survived not only the war with Prussia, which ended in defeat for her, but also another revolution - the Paris Commune. These events devastated and bled the country. The total amount of damage caused by the war amounted to 16 billion francs. Production dropped sharply industrial products , export of finished products and import of raw materials, machinery, fuel. The equipment of enterprises was taken to Germany, many public buildings, warehouses, storage facilities were destroyed; Everywhere in the zone of occupation, forests were cut down, livestock was taken out, and stocks of food and agricultural raw materials were confiscated. The peace treaty of 1871 was signed on enslaving terms. France was obliged to pay an indemnity of 5 billion francs in a short time, and as a guarantee of payment, part of its territory (18 departments) was subject to occupation by German troops. Their maintenance was entrusted to the French side. These expenses were not included in the contribution. In addition, the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine passed into the possession of Germany. France was deprived of two economically developed regions. A serious factor in the general economic backwardness of France was the agrarian problems of French capitalism. The backwardness of agriculture was a consequence of parcel farming. Underdeveloped agriculture hindered the development of the domestic market and industry, hindered the formation of the labor market, and slowed down population growth. The parcel economy was a patchwork sum of disparate patches of land belonging to one owner. On tiny plots, millions of peasants could not even use draft animals. In an effort to expand the economy, the peasant either bought or rented additional plots of land. But having no capital, free funds, he was forced to take loans secured by land, which led to debt and bondage. By the end of the XIX century. "free" parcel peasants paid usurers an annual tribute of 2 billion francs. The incomes of the peasants were absorbed by the payment of interest, taxes, and debts. There was no money left to improve the economy. The growth of debt contributed to the gradual transformation of the owner of a small parcel into the formal owner of the land. At the end of the XIX century. in the French countryside, the formation of farms and the process of land concentration accelerated, while the number of smallholdings increased. The agrarian crisis has intensified the trend towards the transformation of animal husbandry into the leading branch of agriculture, towards a change in the structure of crop production in favor of industrial crops, towards an increase in the share of fruit and vegetable growing in the volume of production. The use of technology expanded, the specialization of production in the regions of the country deepened. In 1892, the state raised duties on agricultural products imported into the country, which expanded the domestic market for domestic producers. An important reason economic backwardness was a peculiar structure of French industry. True, at the end of the XIX century. in France, as in other countries, there was an increase in the concentration of production. A number of joint stock companies sprang up in other industries. However, along with large-scale production, medium and small industry still played a significant role. On the whole, heavy industry developed more rapidly than light industry. New industries were created - the electric power industry, the automotive industry, the locomotive building, and the production of non-ferrous metals. Of great importance for the country's economy was railway construction, which became a capacious market for many branches of heavy industry. From 1870 to 1900, the length of railways in France increased 2.5 times and reached 42.8 thousand km. In terms of the length of the railway lines, France during this period surpassed England and Germany. However, in terms of the number of enterprises and the volume of production, light industry occupied the leading position. France exported silk fabrics, perfumes and cosmetics, clothes, jewelry, and other luxury goods to the world market. The production of these goods was concentrated in small enterprises that used manual labor. French industry lagged sharply behind its main competitors in terms of the technical level of production. Equipment installed at enterprises during the years of the industrial revolution, by the end of the 19th century. physically and morally obsolete and required replacement. The construction of hydroelectric power plants began in the country, but its scale was insignificant. French industry felt a shortage of raw materials and fuel, so it was forced to import coking coal and iron ore, ferrous metals, copper, and cotton in significant quantities. Expensive imported raw materials increased the cost of French goods and reduced their competitiveness in the world market. The concentration rates were lower than in the USA, Germany, England. The process of concentration developed unevenly. It took place most rapidly in heavy industry - metallurgical, mining, paper, printing industries; slower - in light industry. The concentration of production led to the formation of monopolies. In 1876, a metallurgical syndicate was created, uniting 13 largest metallurgical plants. In 1883 a sugar cartel arose, in 1885 a kerosene cartel. The largest monopolies were created in heavy industries. The process of monopolization embraced the textile and food industries. The most typical forms of monopoly associations in France were cartels and syndicates. However, there were also concerns that united enterprises of related industries.

The rate of concentration and centralization of banking capital in France was exceptionally high. In this it ranked first among other capitalist states. The formation of finance capital in France took place with the decisive role of banking capital. The Bank of France became the center of the country's financial capital. The 200 largest shareholders of the bank made up the top of the financial oligarchy, which concentrated in its hands the economic and political power in the country. French Prime Minister Clemenceau admitted that in France "members of the board of the French Bank" have full power. The economic development of France was held back by the export of capital. Huge monetary resources were accumulated that were not invested in the national economy, since the profits received from small enterprises and farms were significantly lower than income from foreign investments and foreign securities. In addition, banks avoided dispersing funds among thousands of small enterprises and making themselves dependent on the success of their activities. In the 70s of the XIX century. French capital was invested in Turkey, Spain, Latin America, and from the beginning of the 80s - in Austria-Hungary, Russia. Since the 1980s, French export of capital has become predominantly the export of loan capital in the form of government loans and has acquired usurious features. By 1914, the export of capital from France had more than tripled compared with the end of the 19th century. and almost four times the investment in French industry. In terms of capital exports, France took second place in the world, but still lagged behind England.

japan monopolization economy imperialism cartel

Japan's victory in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 had serious consequences for her future economic development . The indemnity received from China, the robbery of China and Korea became an additional source of capital for the Japanese economy. Particularly rapid growth in investment was observed in industry and transport. The leading branch of the Japanese industry was still the textile industry: spinning production developed rapidly, the volume of products produced by weaving enterprises from 1894 to 1898 more than doubled. The development of the mining and extractive industries accelerated: the extraction of coal, iron ore, oil and other minerals increased. Since the late 90s of the XIX century. the main attention was paid to the development of heavy industry, primarily metallurgy and mechanical engineering. Of the machine-building industries, shipbuilding was the most developed, which was explained both by the country's insular position and plans to prepare for a future war. From the end of the 19th century the question of expanding colonial possessions on the Asian mainland was put on the agenda. In this regard, the development of Japanese industry began to acquire a one-sided character. The military branches gradually began to occupy a leading place in heavy industry. The intensified militarization of the country - the rearmament of the army and navy, the increase in the level of military equipment, the significant expansion of old and the creation of new military enterprises - was carried out within the framework of the post-war program for the development of the economy, adopted in 1895. The post-war program was designed for 10 years (1896-1905) and provided the creation of a number of branches of heavy, mainly military, industry, the reorganization and expansion of the armed forces. The industrial boom observed in the country since 1895 was interrupted by the financial and then by the economic crises of 1897-1898 and 1900-1902. The crises accelerated qualitative changes in the economy, indicating the beginning of the formation of monopoly capitalism in Japan. From the second half of the 1990s, large capitalist companies began to play an increasingly prominent role in the country's economic life. By the beginning of the XX century. cartels appeared in the textile, tobacco, flour-grinding and other branches of light industry. The construction of state enterprises contributed to the enrichment of big capital. Providing the government with funds for the construction of enterprises by subscribing to state loans, the big capitalists received huge interest during the construction, and after its completion, the enterprises were handed over by the government one after another for next to nothing to the same big businessmen. Despite the high share of state entrepreneurship, the positions of private capital were strengthening in heavy industry. Big capital increasingly confidently occupied leading positions not only in the mining industry and shipbuilding, but also in manufacturing. At the beginning of the XX century. cartel associations were created in the cement, watch, and oil industries. In 1904, two major oil companies formed a syndicate to counter the onslaught of the American Standard Oil Company. Several large monopoly associations have occupied a dominant position in rail transport and maritime navigation. The later entry of Japan onto the path of capitalist development enabled her to create production on the basis of advanced foreign technology and new organizational forms, which, given the existence of a huge number of small enterprises, immediately placed new enterprises in a monopoly position in the industries in which they worked. There were monopolistic associations, which included the bourgeoisie, grouped on the basis of belonging to some particular, former feudal clan or region. In the course of the technological revolution, the uneven economic development of the countries of Western Europe, the USA and Japan increased; the contradictions between the former and future leaders of the world capitalist economy escalated. England and France, unable to adapt to the technological revolution, i.e. to renovate technological and institutional structures, exhausted by the export of financial and human capital, were losing ground. The United States, Germany and Japan have overcome the raw material specialization of their economies thanks to the consistent implementation of national development strategies, effective institutional reforms, and the accelerated direction of investment in the most advanced sectors of production and communications, as well as in education, science and culture.

In the socio-economic development of Russia in the late nineteenth - early twentieth centuries. the main trend was the further development of capitalism in industry, the main manifestations of which indicated that it had reached a higher level. The economic signs of this stage were: the formation of monopolies as a result of the concentration of production and the centralization of capital, the merger of banking and industrial capital and the formation of a financial oligarchy, the export of capital, the economic and territorial division of the world.

Agriculture. In the 1980s and 1990s, agriculture was characterized by the social differentiation of the peasantry. The reforms intensified the process of capital accumulation. The demand for agricultural products stimulated the development of both agriculture in general and its individual branches. In the course of the transformation of agriculture into commodity production, specialized areas arose that contributed to the development of exchange between the various regions of the country. The northern and central provinces became areas of commercial flax growing and meat and dairy farming, the black earth provinces, the Volga and Trans-Volga regions turned into areas of commercial grain farming. However, machines and new agricultural technology were rarely used, so the yield of bread grew slowly. The main supplier of marketable grain was the landowners, who kept the best part of the land after the reform. They had to rebuild the economy in a new way, which took time. Numerous feudal remnants, the dependence of the peasants on the landlords, and the lack of experience slowed down the transition of the landlord economy to capitalist principles. Capitalism developed most rapidly where there were fewer remnants of serfdom. According to the methods of transformation of agriculture, it is possible to single out areas with a predominance of the "Prussian" and "American" paths of development of capitalism. The "Prussian" path was characterized by the preservation of a significant number of remnants of feudalism, including a high degree of exploitation of the peasantry, the introduction of high redemption payments, and the preservation of the community. This type of management prevailed in the Chernozem region, the Middle Volga region. The "American" path was distinguished by the intensive development of productive forces, the introduction of agricultural machinery, the spread of advanced agricultural achievements, and freedom in the use of wage labor. It was characteristic of the North, Siberia, the Volga region, Ukraine, and the North Caucasus. The resettlement policy undertaken by the Stolypin government had some success. It helped the economic and social development of new regions. New settlements gradually turned into large settlements with local governments. The government provided significant support to the development of the rural cooperative movement. The State Bank provided funds to credit partnerships. This was the first stage of the cooperative movement with the predominance of administrative forms of regulation of relations in the field of small credit. At the second stage, rural credit partnerships, having accumulated their own capital, could exist independently. Already by 1912, a system of small peasant credit had developed, consisting of savings and loan associations and credit associations. In 1911, the charter of the Moscow People's Bank was approved, which became the financial center of peasant credit cooperatives. The reform accelerated the development of a market economy - the marketability of agriculture increased, the demand for agricultural machinery, fertilizers, and consumer goods increased. All this contributed to the rise of industrial production.

Industry and trade. The reforms of the 1960s and 1970s gave a powerful impetus to the development of industrial production. An important indicator of this process was the increase in the proportion of the urban population and the change in its class structure. By the 1980s, the industrial revolution was completed in all sectors of the economy. In the main branches of industry and transport, machine production has supplanted manual technology. The water wheel and human muscle power were replaced by the steam engine. In Russia, the industrial revolution took place in two stages. In the 1930s and 1940s, it was mainly completed in the cotton industry, and in the 1970s and 1980s, in railway transport and heavy industry. In the post-reform era, railway construction played a huge role in the development of the economy. The creation of a developed railway network contributed to a significant expansion of the domestic market. The construction of railways was not only an indicator of economic growth, but also its stimulator. It contributed to the development of the mining, metallurgical, metalworking and machine-building industries. The development of rail transport accelerated the development of agriculture, as it improved the possibilities for marketing and circulation of goods. All this created the conditions for the final formation of the all-Russian market and the further development of capitalist relations. One of the main results of large-scale railway construction was the vigorous development of the economy. Ferrous metallurgy and coal mining have become the main branches of heavy industry. In the second half of the 1990s, new machine-building plants were built. The high growth rates of heavy industries could not but affect the sectoral structure of the economy and the territorial distribution of industry. New types of production appeared, such as oil, oil refining, mechanical engineering. The rapid development of new territories affected the location of the fuel and metallurgical industries. Some areas retained an agricultural character. They supplied the cities with bread and agricultural raw materials and were consumers of industrial products. The uneven distribution of industry across the territory is one of the features of the development of capitalism in Russia. Economic changes in agriculture and industry could not but affect domestic and foreign trade. The forms of trade have changed. Seasonal fairs persisted mainly in less developed areas. Trading companies with a developed network of stores and warehouses were created in large cities. Commodity exchanges were formed, which, as a rule, were of a specialized nature: grain, timber, manufacturing, etc. The industrial goods market developed rapidly. A steady demand has formed for cars, agricultural implements, oil products, fabrics, and footwear. Consumers of goods became not only the urban, but also the rural population. The volume of foreign trade turnover increased, which indicated that Russia was being drawn into the world market. The rapid development of the Russian economy was characterized by the penetration of foreign capital into industry, which was largely facilitated by low customs tariffs, and the granting of the right to foreign nationals to search for and extract minerals. Foreign capital was invested in oil production and refining, transport, as well as in the reconstruction of enterprises and the creation of complexes in the ferrous metallurgy. The investment process was dominated by investments from four countries - France, England, Germany, Belgium. In the early 1990s, the country entered a new stage of industrial development. As a result of its industrial upsurge, it has become one of the countries with an average level of development of capitalism. Russia was the leader in terms of growth rates and concentration of production. This was largely facilitated by the widespread development of joint-stock forms. As a rule, industry was headed by a large share capital. After the dynamic development of the late XIX century. industry, as well as the economy as a whole, entered a period of recession. General industrial development continued, but was very uneven. In 1909-1913 a new economic upsurge began. Industrial production increased at a particularly rapid pace. According to this indicator, Russia was ahead of England, France, Germany, and the USA. Receipts from industrial production in the national income almost equaled the receipts from the agricultural sector. Industrial products covered 80% of domestic demand. The development of the economy contributed to the strengthening of monopolistic processes. The first monopolies appeared already in the late 70s of the XIX century. Due to the high level of concentration of economic resources, they created opportunities for accelerating technological progress and conditions for extracting high profits. The original form of monopolistic association was the cartel. The cartel was created as a temporary agreement of independent enterprises in order to establish control over the market for a certain product. It provided for the establishment of mandatory minimum prices for goods for all participants; delimitation of sales areas, determination of the total volume of production or sales and the share of each participant in it, general conditions for hiring labor, the exchange of patents, etc. For industry, the most typical was the creation of monopolies such as a syndicate - an agreement of independent enterprises on joint commercial activities while maintaining production activities. The first syndicates arose in the industries associated with railway construction. These were associations of enterprises for the production of rails, then factories for the production of fasteners for rail structures, the construction of bridges, etc. The first industrial monopolies appeared in new industries, which testified to the extremely important role of railway construction for the economic development of the country. At the beginning of the XX century. syndicates were the most widespread form of monopolies. They were created in heavy industries: mining, metallurgical, mechanical engineering. In the oil industry, trusts began to form, which were characterized by the loss of commercial and industrial independence by the merging enterprises and submission to a single management. The owners who entered the trust became shareholders of the trust. Monopoly associations also appeared in the light and food industries, sugar, linen, jute, thread, and silk industries. However, the process of monopolization of light industry lagged behind the process of monopolization of heavy industry. By 1914, there were more than 200 monopolistic associations of various types in the country.

Finance. By 1861, the state of Russian finances was deplorable. The main source of replenishment of the treasury was the issue of paper money. The result was an increase in the budget deficit. For the development of a system of commercial credit in banking form, certain conditions were necessary: ​​the development of trade relations, the accumulation of capital, the establishment of commercial relations in foreign trade and between individual regions within the country. In 1860, the State Bank was founded as the main issuing and lending institution responsible for the country's financial policy. The State Bank did not have independence. He reported directly to the Ministry of Finance. The general management was carried out by the council of the bank and the manager, who was appointed by the Senate. From 1860 to 1896, the State Bank financed the treasury, i.e. acted as a creditor to the state. Only in 1896 did his expenses equal the amounts of the treasury deposited in the State Bank. The complete liquidation of the state's debt to the bank took place only in 1901. The second half of the 1960s is characterized by the formation of the first private banks. For relatively a short time developed an extensive banking system. By the beginning of the XX century. the country was covered with a network of industrial, commercial, mortgage banks that issued loans and loans secured by land property, numerous mutual credit societies and credit cooperatives, combining in their activities the features of a savings bank and a mutual fund, city banks that attracted deposits and carried out commodity lending. The areas of activity of banks differed significantly. Large St. Petersburg banks, such as Russian-Asian, St. Petersburg International Commercial, Azov-Don Commercial, Russian for Foreign Trade, Russian Commercial and Industrial, can be described as "business". Thus, the Russian-Asian Bank practically contained Putilov factory, Russobalt, financed the military, oil, tobacco industries; Petersburg International Commercial supported transport engineering, shipbuilding, non-ferrous industry; Azov-Don - metallurgical, coal, sugar and textile enterprises; The Russian Bank for Foreign Trade and the Russian Commercial and Industrial Bank provided loans for large-scale trade operations. These banks were characterized by joint activities with foreign capital. The second financial group is the St. Petersburg banks, namely the Siberian Trade, Accounting and Loan, Private Commercial Bank, the Moscow United Bank and the Commercial Bank in Warsaw, which specialized in regional banking operations. Finally, the third financial group was represented by the Volga-Kama and Moscow merchant banks. These institutions were close in nature to the classical deposit banks of the 19th century. A high proportion of transactions with deposits, the predominance of bills of exchange and commodity loans, the absence of ties with foreign capital and lending mainly to the textile industry, ties with the merchants gave reason to call them traditional.

Economic policy. Government policy in the economic sphere was formed and implemented on the basis of economic programs developed by the Ministry of Finance. Prior to the formation in 1905 of the Ministry of Trade and Industry, this department concentrated management not only of money circulation, credits, but also of industry, trade, and railway construction. The Ministry of Finance developed long-term programs for the country's economic development and was responsible for their implementation. After the abolition of serfdom, M.Kh. was appointed Minister of Finance. Reitern. He prepared a long-term program for the economic development of Russia. It was based on the principle of a mixed economy and provided for a combination of public and private interests under the patronage of the Ministry of Finance and the State Bank. The Minister of Finance attached great importance to overcoming the monetary crisis and restoring the value of the ruble. To this end, the Ministry of Finance limited external borrowing, limited the export of capital abroad, reduced government spending, and conducted operations to purchase gold and silver. Particular attention was paid to the widespread attraction of foreign capital, since the shortage of free Money hindered industrial development. Customs policy was aimed at this, providing protection for the developing domestic industry and facilitating the inflow of foreign capital. The rules on concessions developed by the ministry made it possible to attract foreign capital for the implementation Russian projects. As before, coverage was provided through external and internal loans. In 1892, the post of Minister of Finance was taken by S.Yu. Witte. He continued to implement the economic development programs of his predecessors. His economic program was aimed at achieving Russia's complete economic independence. The state played an active role in this process. According to Witte, the promotion of domestic industry and agriculture was the most important task of public finance and the entire credit system of the country. In the industrialization of industry, Witte saw the basis of economic and political stability. To achieve the goals set, the program provided for an increase in investment in industry, the expansion of industrial credit, the stimulation of private entrepreneurship, the improvement of trade and payment balances, the development of a network of general and vocational education, etc. Given that domestic sources of financing for industrialization were insufficient, the program provided for the widespread attraction of foreign capital and the provision of guarantees to foreign investors. The key point of the economic program was the monetary reform. Russia moved to the gold standard system, which continued until the First World War. The economic policy of this period included: the traditional patronage of industry; agricultural development measures to expand the domestic market; limiting the public sector of the economy and encouraging private entrepreneurship; achieving a deficit-free budget and ensuring the stability of the financial system; attracting foreign capital in order to ensure the stability of the monetary system; development of foreign trade activities to cover foreign debt. Adhering to a strict emission policy, the government ensured a stable exchange rate for Russian securities, which aroused the confidence of foreign investors. Such a policy contributed to a powerful influx of foreign capital into the Russian economy, both in the form of loans to maintain the gold circulation, and in joint stock form.

Bibliography

History of Economics: textbook / ed. ed. prof. O. D. Kuznetsova and prof. I. N. Shapkina. M., 2000. Ch. 7_8.

The term imperialism appeared in the late 60s (Hobbson & Hilferding).

Toyenby writes not about imperialism, but about imperialism (as a state of the state). Not all countries that entered the imperialist stage were imperial

(Germany, USA)

Imp-th outlines the relationship of the mother country against the colony. In Russia, for example, there

empire but no colony. Imperialism, from the point of view of the ek-ki, is not a general system, but a special stage of capitalism (not necessarily the highest!) Imperialism is very clearly defined in history from the end of the 19th century to the end of the 19th century. until the end of World War II.

Imperialism is a concept that characterizes the internal economic structure of the most developed powers and the corresponding forms of international economic and political relations. The stage (stage) of imperialism is singled out by scientists (J. Hobson, V. I. Lenin) in relation to the capitalist formation, when the dominance of monopolies and financial capital develops, the economic division of the world into spheres of interests of international (transnational) corporations (trusts) takes place, and on this basis a struggle unfolds between them, in which the states are included.

If it were necessary to give the shortest possible definition of imperialism, then it would be necessary to say that imperialism is the monopoly stage of capitalism.

It is necessary to give a complete definition and single out five main features of imperialism: 1) the concentration of production and capital, which has reached such a high stage of development that it has created monopolies that play a decisive role in economic life; 2) the merging of banking capital with industrial capital and the creation, on the basis of this "financial capital", of a financial oligarchy; 3) the export of capital, in contrast to the export of goods, is of particular importance; 4) international monopoly alliances of capitalists are formed, dividing the world, and 5) the territorial division of the land by the major capitalist powers is completed. Imperialism is capitalism at that stage of development when the dominance of monopolies and finance capital has taken shape, the export of capital has acquired outstanding importance, the division of the world by international trusts has begun, and the division of the entire territory of the earth by the largest capitalist countries has been completed.

Understood in this sense, imperialism undoubtedly represents a special stage in the development of capitalism.

Three areas with highly developed capitalism (strong development of both communications and trade and industry): Central European, British and American. Among them are three states dominating the world: Germany, England, the United States. The imperialist emulation and struggle between them is extremely intensified by the fact that Germany has an insignificant area and few colonies; the creation of "middle Europe" is still in the future, and it is born in a desperate struggle. So far, political fragmentation is a sign of all of Europe. In the British and American regions, on the contrary, political concentration is very high, but there is a huge discrepancy between the vast colonies of the former and the insignificant colonies of the latter. And in the colonies, capitalism is just beginning to develop. Struggle for South America everything escalates.

Two areas - the weak development of capitalism, Russian and East Asian. The first has an extremely weak population density, the second has an extremely high one; in the first the political concentration is great, in the second it is absent. China has only just begun to be divided, and the struggle for it between Japan, the United States, etc., is becoming more and more acute.

Finance capital and trusts do not weaken but increase the differences between the rates of growth of different parts of the world economy.

The fastest development of railways was in the colonies and in the independent states of Asia and America. It is known that the finance capital of the 4-5 largest capitalist states reigns and rules here entirely. Two hundred thousand kilometers of new railroads in the colonies and in other countries of Asia and America, that means over 40 billion marks of new investment of capital on especially favorable terms, with special guarantees of profitability, with lucrative orders for steel mills, etc., etc.

Capitalism is growing most rapidly in the colonies and in overseas countries. New imperialist powers (Japan) are emerging among them. The struggle of world imperialisms is intensifying. The tribute that finance capital takes from especially profitable colonial and overseas enterprises is growing. When this "booty" is divided, an exceptionally high proportion falls into the hands of countries that do not always occupy the first place in terms of the speed of development of productive forces.

So, about 80% of the total number of railways is concentrated in the 5 largest powers.

Thanks to her colonies, England increased "her" railway network by 100,000 kilometers, four times more than Germany. Meanwhile, it is well known that the development of the productive forces of Germany during this time, and especially the development of coal and iron production, proceeded incomparably faster than in England, not to mention France and Russia. In 1892, Germany produced 4.9 million tons of pig iron, against 6.8 in England; and in 1912 it was already 17.6 against 9.0, that is, a gigantic advantage over England!

49. The main signs of imperialism (according to Lenin) 5 signs:

1) the concentration of production and capital, which has reached such a high stage of development that it has created monopolies that play a decisive role in economic life; 2) the merging of banking capital with industrial capital and the creation, on the basis of this "financial capital", of a financial oligarchy;

3) the export of capital, in contrast to the export of goods, is of particular importance;

4) international monopoly unions of capitalists are formed, dividing the world

5) the territorial division of the land by the major capitalist powers has been completed.

Imperialism is capitalism at that stage of development when the dominance of monopolies and finance capital has taken shape, the export of capital has acquired outstanding importance, the division of the world by international trusts has begun, and the division of the entire territory of the earth by the largest capitalist countries has been completed. 1) For example, in America, almost half of the total production of all enterprises in the country is in the hands of one hundredth of the total number of enterprises -> that concentration, at a certain stage of its development, by itself leads, one might say, right up to monopoly. For it is easy for several dozen gigantic enterprises to come to an agreement among themselves, and on the other hand, the difficulty of competition, the tendency towards monopoly, is generated precisely by the large size of the enterprises. 2) Among the few banks, which, by virtue of the process of concentration, remain at the head of the entire capitalist economy, there naturally emerges and intensifies the striving for a monopoly agreement, for a banking trust. In America, not nine, but two of the largest banks, the billionaires Rockefeller and Morgan, dominate a capital of 11 billion marks. For the newest capitalism, with the domination of monopolies, the export of capital has become typical. But the internal market, under capitalism, is inevitably connected with the external one.

Capitalism created the world market a long time ago. And as the export of capital grew and foreign and colonial ties and the "spheres of influence" of the largest monopoly unions expanded in every possible way, things "naturally" approached a worldwide agreement between them, to the formation of international cartels. This is a new stage in the worldwide concentration of capital and production, incomparably higher than the previous ones. Let's see how this supermonopoly grows. 5) We are, consequently, living through a unique era of world colonial policy, which is most closely connected with the "latest stage in the development of capitalism", with finance capital. Therefore, it is necessary to dwell in more detail, first of all, on the actual data in order to clarify as accurately as possible both the difference between this era and previous ones, and the state of affairs at the present time. In the first place, two factual questions arise here: is there an intensification of colonial policy, an intensification of the struggle for colonies precisely in the era of finance capital, and how exactly the world is divided in this respect at the present time.

The eve of the socialist revolution. This brilliant conclusion of V. I. Lenin was soon fully confirmed in the course of historical development. The Great October Socialist Revolution marked the beginning of the era of transition from capitalism to socialism. For sixty years, the peoples of the USSR, and later of a number of other countries, have been building a new society fundamentally different from the capitalist one. The world socialist system has taken shape and is gaining strength. Capitalism since the victory October revolution entered a period of general crisis - a historical period of decline and final collapse. The main feature of the general crisis of capitalism is the split of the world into two opposite social systems, capitalist and socialist. It also manifests itself in the disintegration of the colonial system of imperialism, in the struggle of a number of countries liberated from colonial dependence for a non-capitalist path of development, in the growth of the instability of the capitalist economy, the intensification of the uneven development of the capitalist countries, in the intensification of the class struggle of the working people against the oppression of the monopolies.

Imperialism has made inevitable the struggle of international trusts, international unions of monopolists for markets for goods, sources of raw materials, and areas for investment of capital. The imperialist powers absorb the vast majority of the world's production of raw materials, but most of them do not have significant deposits of their own. The export of capital, the creation of their own branches or subsidiaries abroad, have served and continue to serve as the main instrument for the penetration of monopolies into other countries. In an effort to obtain the highest profit, they conclude agreements among themselves on the division of world markets. The division of world markets, or the economic division of the world, becomes the most important feature of imperialism.

With all the changes that capitalism has undergone, the basic laws of its development, determined by the essence of capitalist production relations, are preserved. Therefore, in order to correctly understand the most essential features of the capitalist mode of production as a whole, to reveal its irreconcilable contradictions, it is necessary, first of all, relying on the methodology of K. Marx, to comprehensively study the capitalism of free competition, i.e., pre-monopoly capitalism. First, one should clarify the laws of capitalist production, then proceed to an analysis of the laws of circulation of capital, and, finally, consider the processes of capitalist production, circulation, distribution and consumption in their unity and interaction. This will allow a deeper understanding of the essence of capital and surplus value, to reveal the laws and categories that express the specific forms of their movement. Consideration of all these problems is devoted to the first part of the section - General foundations of the capitalist mode of production. The second part - Imperialism - the highest stage of capitalism - analyzes, firstly, the patterns of development of monopoly capitalism and, secondly, the effect of these patterns during the period of the general crisis of world capitalism.

Imperialism grew as a direct continuation and development of the basic properties of capitalism. Despite the fact that profound changes have taken place in the development of capitalist society, all the fundamental features of capitalism remain - capitalist private ownership of the means of production, the division of society into antagonistic classes, competition and anarchy of production. The economic laws of capitalism are also in force at the stage of imperialism, but under the influence of new economic conditions they have other manifestations.

Under the conditions of monopoly capitalism, all the main features of imperialism - the domination of monopolies and finance capital, the export of capital, the division of the world by international monopolies and the largest monopoly powers - are the result of the operation of the law of surplus value, the result of the development of capitalist production in order to extract the greatest profit. Under these conditions, monopoly profit and monopoly price become forms of manifestation of the basic economic law of capitalism. The monopolies make high profits by sharply intensifying the exploitation of the working class, the peasantry, the urban petty bourgeoisie, and the peoples of the backward colonial and semi-colonial countries.

The form of resolving the contradiction between the productive forces and bourgeois production relations is the socialist revolution. Capitalism does not voluntarily leave the historical arena. He fiercely resists, retreats with fights. The capitalist system disintegrates under the blows of the revolutionary forces. At the same time, the socialist system is emerging, gaining strength and developing. Thus, the main feature of the modern era is the split of the world into two opposite socio-economic systems, an irreconcilable struggle between them, during which socialism is gaining new positions, and imperialism is retreating.

IMPERIALISM - monopoly capitalism, its highest and last stage of development, decaying and dying capitalism, the eve of the socialist revolution. Its main distinguishing feature and main defining feature is the dominance of big monopoly capital in the economic, political and ideological fields. A comprehensive, truly scientific analysis of the essence of imperialism was given by V. I. Lenin in his work Imperialism, as the highest stage of capitalism, published in 1917, as well as in a number of other works. The theory of imperialism worked out by Lenin was the greatest contribution to Marxism, a new stage in its development. It equips the working people and the Marxist-Leninist parties with an understanding of the most important features of modern capitalism and its profound contradictions, and exposes the methods used by the imperialists to maintain their rule. At the same time, it points to the paths that lead to the inevitable death of capitalism at its last stage and its replacement by socialism. Exploring the imperialist stage of capitalism, V. I. Lenin singled out its five main economic features: 1) the concentration of production and capital, which reached such a high level of development that it created monopolies that play a decisive role in economic life; 2) the merger of banking capital with industrial capital and the creation on the basis of this financial capital of the financial oligarchy 3) the export of capital, in contrast to the export of goods, is of particular importance; 4) international monopoly alliances of capitalists are formed that divide the world;

Thus, having based the presentation, as noted, on the formational approach, in the analysis of pre-capitalist formations, the group of authors tried to show the development during this period of precisely a number of relations inherent in the natural economic organization of production as a whole, peculiar relations of personal dependence and related forms exploitation, trace the line of emergence and development of commodity relations. An attempt has been made to draw attention to common points development, as the improvement of human abilities, the action of a certain motivation in labor, the mechanism of market relations. In the exposition of capitalist production relations, there is no separation of a special section on imperialism. The main attention is paid to the consideration of the general features of the

The program adopted by the 3rd Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam (19(il)) states that the main enemies of the Venezuelan revolution are American imperialism and latifundism. land ownership independent and progressive development of the national economy in all areas consistent democratization political life which would make it possible to solve in a progressive way the main problems of the nation and the masses. The decisions of the 6th plenum of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam (air. 1904) determined the ways to achieve these goals. The experience gained over last years, teaches us that the enemies of our revolution, led by American imperialism, will not allow the forces that advocate the elimination of their domination to come to power peacefully, therefore the path to achieve victory is the path of armed struggle ... The conduct of armed struggle not only excludes, but also involves the use of other forms of struggle. The 4th Congress of the CPV (Jan. 1971) comprehensively analyzed Ch. features and reasons for savings. backwardness of V. and its dependence on Amer. imperialism and put forward Ch. tasks of the struggle against imperialism and internal. reaction to pave the way for all-round self-reliance and independent development of the country.

In the era of imperialism, V. t. capitalist. countries acquires new features. Decisive positions are taken by the largest monopolies, private capitalist. manufacturing and trading companies. They also control mainly the sale (both on the domestic and foreign markets) of goods of small producers and non-monopoly. enterprises (especially in the village x-ve). The domination of monopolies and fiction. capital sharply increases foreign trade. expansion, which becomes one of the important means of extracting monopoly superprofits. V. t. in this era develops to a degree under the influence of the export of capital. As V. I. Lenin emphasizes, the export of capital abroad becomes a means of encouraging the export of goods abroad (ibid., vol. 27, p. 363). The export of capital is used to seize foreign markets and sources of raw materials, especially in colonial and dependent countries. Whatever form the export of capital takes - in the form of loans, credits, or direct investments - the predominant part of it is usually exported (directly or indirectly) in the form of commodities, i.e., it leads to an increase in foreign trade. turnover. At the same time, incomes (interest and dividends) on capital exported abroad are paid by capital-importing countries, as a rule, also in commodity form. And this, in turn, contributes, therefore, to the growth of W. t. Economy, the division of the world by the largest monopolies, and the creation of the colonial system of imperialism acted in the same direction (see Table 1).

Lit. Marx K., Capital, vol. 1, ch. 11-13, 23-24 Marx K. and Engels F., Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 23 of his own, Capital, vol. 3, ch. 15, 27, ibid., vol. 25, part 1 F. Engels, Anti-Dühring, section 3, ch. 1, ibid., vol. 20 Marx K.iEngels F., Manifesto of the Communist Party, ibid., vol. 4 Lenin V.I., Development of capitalism in Russia, ch. 6, 7, Poly, coll. soch., 5th ed., vol. 3rd, Imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism, ch. 1, 2, ibid., v. 27 Novoselov S.P., The main contradiction of capitalism and modernity, M., 1974 Perlo V., Unstable economy, trans. from English, M., 1975, ch. 2 State-monopoly capitalism general features and characteristics, M., 1975 Political economy of modern monopoly capitalism, 2nd ed., vol. 1, section 1, M., 1975 Pezenti A., Essays on the political economy of capitalism, trans. from Italian, vol. 1, ch. 12, 13, M., 1976.

The industrial revolution ended in the countries of the continental. Ev. in the 60-70s, prepared the conditions for the new. development produces. forces. Technich progress last. thirds of the 19th century transformed the capital of the economy and its organizational forms, covering primarily the heavy industry: metallurgy and engineering. They created the material preconditions for the transition to imperialism. The transition to mass production of steel has opened up great opportunities for the development of railway and maritime. transport. Militarism has become one of the most important. class tools. domination of the financial industry of the bourgeoisie. New branches of industry: electrical, electrical, chemical. host type. org-ii and proizv-va - monopoly. (in Germany - cartels and syndicates, in the USA - trusts). An increasing number of Jews state-in the beginning-t transition. j) protectionism - the accumulation of capital and the development of monopolies.

English ext. trade. Eng. continued to grow, its industry developed (engineering) in general, the pace of development Ek-ki noticeably lagged behind the US and Germany. Ek. crisis will continue. depression caused numerous. bankruptcy, etc. accelerated the concentration of capital. Agrarian the sector significantly suffered from expansion in the 70s of the XIX century. deliveries on ev. markets are cheap. Amer. of bread. Capital has become key. export component (I place in the world). Up to 75% of capital investments are sent to the colonies. USA. Liquid is a slave owner. latifundium and distribution of land on the main. democratic principles led to the fact that the beginning. creating a wide basis for burn. growth generates forces and free investment of capital. The farming path of agricultural evolution provided the fastest development of productive forces. The means of payment of the market, the influx of labor force in the person of emigrants from Ev., contributed to the rapid development of industry. A protectionist half-ka and an influx of capital from outside. The process of concentration in industry and banking has been accelerated at a rapid pace. In the country, the warehouse is a financial oligarchy. She managed the money and goods market and influenced half of the Amer rights. There is an impoverishment and ruin of the small and medium farmer households. The agrarian movement of the 19th century was defeated in its attempts to achieve an alleviation of the conditions of the farmers. Fr. fast paced development is heavy industry, but the predominance is light. The process of the Fr industry was slowing down (4th place in the world). Narrow internal market. The loss of Alsace-Lorraine in W with Prus slowed down the development of heavy industry. Fr. cap-zm began to acquire the features of a usurer. imperial zma. In terms of export of capital, it firmly occupied the 2nd place in the world. Germ. quickly transforming from agrarian. in industry G. The capture of Alsace-Lotharin increased the potential of German cap-zma. Contribution from FR solved the problem of capital accumulation and contributed to the successful economic growth. The rapidly developing new industries are associated with the production of machines, shipbuilding, chemistry, etc. Heavy industrial eq-ki b itself means th and dominated la over the rest of the industries. By 1873 Grunder fever is over and the country is drawn into the world of economic crisis (until 1987). Ek depression accelerated the concentration of production and capital. Slozh-s predpos-ki gentlemen-va finance capital. Concentration prom. production - cartels.

One of the important manifestations of imperialism began to strive for a revival of interest, led the Jewish powers to conquer new overseas colonies. This was facilitated by further industrial successes, the development of new markets, the expansion of free trade, the export of capital, the emergence of new military technologies. Colon) includes both colonies and semi-colonies. Entire groups of countries (China, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan) retained sovereignty only formally. The term imperialism came into use in the 20th century. in Fr. In the last 10 years of the XIX century. with the strengthening of the columns of the expansion of Britain and other countries, imperial-zm has already been used as a synonym for the term colon-zm. M / y leading powers unfolding b / ba for the division of capital spheres. By the 19th century exacerbation of the b / b leading countries for the territories of Africa, Az and Oceania that have not yet been captured. Features: strengthening the trend towards the formation of a global market, the beginning of the development of the theory of the foundations of the power field in the m / unar arena.

The first, but quite correct idea of ​​what imperialism is, is given by the translation of the Latin noun imperium, from which the root of this word is derived. It means - power, domination. Indeed, it is commonly understood as a state policy, which is based on military force used for external expansion and the seizure of foreign territories.

Colonialism is synonymous with imperialism

In general, the era of imperialism is characterized by the formation of colonies, as well as the economic control that stronger states establish over countries that are inferior to them in their development. In this regard, the term "imperialism" in the last quarter of the 19th century acquired a synonym - "colonialism", which practically coincides with it in meaning.

For the first time the term "world imperialism" was introduced into circulation by the English historian and economist J. A. Hobson, who devoted his major work to it in 1902. Such prominent Marxists as V. I. Lenin, N. I. Bukharin, R. Hilferding, and also Rosa Luxemburg became his followers. Having carried out a broader development of this category, they used its main provisions to substantiate the class struggle aimed at carrying out the proletarian revolution.

Statement by V. I. Lenin on the characteristic features of imperialism

In one of his works, V. I. Lenin defined the main features of imperialism. First of all, he pointed out that monopolies formed as a result of a high concentration of production and capital are beginning to play a key role in the country's economy. In addition, according to the “leader of the world proletariat” (as he was called in the Soviet period), an essential characteristic of the imperialist state is the merging of industrial and banking capital in it, and, as a result of this process, the emergence of a financial oligarchy.

In defining what imperialism is, Lenin also emphasized that at this stage in the development of capitalist society, the export of capital begins to dominate the export of goods. In this he was practically quoting Marx. The monopolies, in turn, begin to unite into powerful international alliances that divide the world into their spheres of influence (economic imperialism). And, finally, the result of all the processes described above is the military division of the earth between the most powerful imperialist states.

Criticism of Lenin's theory

On the basis of the signs of imperialism listed by V. I. Lenin, the so-called Marxist understanding of this phenomenon was formed, which was considered the only true one and was disseminated in its time by the organs of Soviet propaganda. However, the observations of scientists of a later period largely refute it.

Analyzing historical processes that took place during the 20th and early 21st centuries, many of them came to an unexpected conclusion. It turned out that regardless of their socio-economic system, states are capable of performing actions that result in the seizure of foreign territories, the global division of spheres of influence, as well as the formation of dominant and dependent countries. The policy of the major imperialist powers of the 20th century was determined by a number of objective factors that did not fit into the Marxist-Leninist theory.

Globalization process

In the 21st century, the formation of a qualitatively new stage of imperialism, called "globalism", is observed. Under this term, which has been widely used in recent decades, it is customary to understand a wide range of various military, political, economic and other activities aimed at dominating the doctrine, as a rule, implemented by the most developed and powerful state claiming world leadership. Thus, at this stage, the policy of imperialism is reduced to the creation of a "unipolar world."

The era of neo-globalism

A new term has entered the lexicon of modern political scientists - "neo-imperialism". It is commonly understood as a military-political and military alliance of several of the most developed powers, united by a common goal to impose their hegemony on the rest of the world in all areas of life and thus create a model of society that is beneficial to themselves.

Neo-imperialism is characterized precisely by the fact that the place of individual powers, overwhelmed by ambitious aspirations, was taken by their alliances. Having thus received additional potential, they began to pose a real danger to the global political and economic balance.

No wonder the turn of the XX and XXI centuries. became the period of the birth of the worldwide anti-globalization movement, opposing the dominance of transnational corporations, and various kinds of trade and government organizations, such as, for example, the WTO (World Trade Organization), which was sensational in its time.

What is imperialism in Russia?

At the end of the first decade of the 20th century, Russian capitalism acquired many of the features characteristic of imperialism, in its understanding, which was proposed by theorists of the Marxist-Leninist doctrine. This was largely facilitated by the rise of the economy, which replaced the period of depression. In the same period, there was a significant concentration of production. Suffice it to say that, according to the statistics of those years, about 65% of all workers worked at large enterprises engaged in the implementation of government orders.

This served as the basis for the formation and development of monopolies. Researchers, in particular, note that in the pre-revolutionary decade, this process even embraced the textile industry, in which patriarchal merchant orders were traditionally strong. The period of formation and subsequent development of imperialism in Russia was also marked by the massive transfer of the Ural mining enterprises from the hands of private owners to the possession of banks and joint-stock companies, thus gaining control over a huge amount of the country's natural wealth.

Of particular note is the growing power of monopolies in the most significant areas of industry. An example of this is the Prodamet syndicate, founded in 1902, which in a short time managed to concentrate almost 86% of the entire national metal sales in its hands. At the same time, three powerful associations associated with the largest foreign trusts appeared and successfully operated in the oil industry. They were some kind of industrial monsters. Producing more than 60% of domestic oil, they were, at the same time, the owners of 85% of all share capital.

The emergence in Russia of large monopoly associations

The most common form of monopoly in pre-revolutionary Russia was trusts - associations of enterprises, and in some cases, banks to implement a pricing policy that was beneficial to them, as well as other types of commercial activities. But gradually they began to be supplanted by monopolies of a higher type, such as trusts and cartels.

Continuing the conversation about what imperialism is in Russia, which was on the verge of colossal political and economic upheavals of the 20th century, it is impossible to ignore such a phenomenon as the emergence of a powerful financial oligarchy caused by the merger of banking and industrial capital. This was already mentioned above in the section devoted to Lenin's definitions of world imperialism, which almost completely corresponded to the Russian realities of that period.

The growing role of the financial and industrial oligarchy

In particular, it should be noted that from the end of the 19th century until the October armed coup, the number of commercial banks in the country practically remained the same, but the amount of funds controlled by them increased four times. A particularly powerful breakthrough was made from 1908 to 1913. A characteristic feature of this period in the development of the Russian economy was the placement of bank securities - shares and bonds not abroad, as was customary before, but within the country.

At the same time, financial oligarchs did not limit their activities to stock speculation. industrial enterprises and railways. They were actively involved in managing them, and in addition, they themselves were the creators of monopolies in various industrial sectors - from metallurgy to the production of tobacco and salt.

Interaction of the financial elite with the government

As Lenin pointed out in his works, an important stimulus for the formation of Russia on an imperialist footing was the close interaction of oligarchic circles with representatives of the state apparatus. To this there were the most favorable conditions. It is noted that after 1910, four of the five largest metropolitan banks were headed by persons who previously held key positions in the Ministry of Finance.

Thus, in matters of internal and, importantly, foreign policy the Russian government was the executor of the will of the highest circles of the industrial and financial oligarchy. This explains many decisions that came from both the cabinet of ministers and directly from the emperor. In particular, the interests of the monopolies that were part of the military-industrial complex largely predetermined the country's entry into the First World War, which turned out to be disastrous for both the three-hundred-year-old dynasty of its kings and millions of ordinary people.