Extralinguistic factors. Linguistic and extralinguistic factors of public speech Language linguistic and extralinguistic factors
Extralinguistic factors, the conditions in which the language is used, influence the selection of speech means, the likelihood of using certain lexemes, grammatical forms and constructions, i.e. form a system of functional styles.
Language, being a social phenomenon, serves various spheres human activity and, naturally, it functions differently in different areas. The functioning of language depends on: the form of communication (oral/written), the conditions of communication (official/informal/contact), the type of work of consciousness (generalizing - cognitive, cognitive-evaluative, information-emotional, etc.).
One of the most important extralinguistic factors influencing the use of language is the sphere of communication: the sphere of official business documentation (sphere legal regulation life of society), the sphere of science and learning, the sphere of verbal art, the socio-political sphere and the sphere of everyday life.
Academician V.V. Vinogradov, along with the sphere of communication, also identified the functions of communication as a factor determining the functional style: communication, communication, and influence. Functional styles are distinguished and constituted precisely on this extralinguistic basis. Extralinguistic, or extralinguistic, style-forming factors of functional styles are those phenomena of extralinguistic reality in which speech communication takes place and under the influence of which the selection and organization of linguistic means occurs, i.e. speech acquires its own stylistic characteristics. The use of language by speakers does not occur in a vacuum, but in a certain non-verbal context of a speech act, the factors of which, like the properties of the linguistic personality, influence the style of speech. These factors are very diverse. For the formation of functional styles, the so-called basic (or primary) factors are especially important. The main specific style features of the functional. styles are formed under the influence of such E. s. f., as a sphere of communication associated with one or another type of activity, correlative with the form of consciousness (science, art, politics, law, religion, everyday consciousness in the everyday sphere); the form of thinking (logical-conceptual, figurative, deontic, etc.), the purpose of communication is the main one (as opposed to the individual intention of a specific speech act), determined by the purpose of these types of activities in society; type of content (usually different in different areas of communication); functions of language (communicative, aesthetic, expressive, phatic, etc.); typical (basic) communication situation (formal/informal). Other (conditionally secondary) factors determine stylistic features, although they are characteristic of one or another function. style, but not essential and therefore found in other styles (usually with modification), but, most importantly, forming features not of the macrostyle, but of more specific varieties (substyle, genre, etc.). These are the conditions of communication and forms of speech that are not directly related to the purpose of the form of consciousness itself and the corresponding type of activity, but to the implementation of additional tasks of communication in some more specific type of activity, the conditions for its “course,” taking into account the uniqueness of the audience; in addition - interpersonal or mass communication, direct or indirect; oral or written form of speech, prepared/unprepared (spontaneous); monologue/dialogue; specific communication situation; kind of literature; specificity of the genre; relationships between speakers; their social role; individual intentions of the speaker (up to the manifestation of his thinking style in speech), etc.
These factors determine style features speeches, as if superimposed on the main, macro-style specificity, otherwise - revealing more specific features of speech (for example, features of the popular science substyle in the field of scientific speech, as if added to the latter and somewhat transforming it; or genre: article - review - review, etc.). Basic factors and their corresponding style features are invariant. Thus, in speech (text) there is, as it were, a hierarchy of stylistic features that constitute unity: secondary factors and stylistic features characterize the internal differentiation of each function. style into substyles, genres, etc. (see Classification and internal differentiation of functional styles). However, they are interconnected with the primary ones.
The situation is more complicated with the determination of the basic factors of decomposition. speech (colloquial-everyday functional style - see), regarding which there are different points of view. But most likely, the basic factors here should be recognized as formality/informality, immediacy/mediation, preparedness/unpreparedness of communication, which, together with goal setting, determine the type of work of consciousness in this area. For some functions styles, eg. newspaper-journalistic, the conditions of communication are essential (thus, the short time frame for creating newspaper texts determines the transition of expressive means to standard ones).
The study of extralinguistic factors of communication, their influence on the nature of speech and its stylistic originality was facilitated not only by the development of functional. stylistics, but also sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, linguo-sociopsychology, theory of speech acts, pragmatics. In this case, it is obviously advisable to distinguish, on the one hand, factors (and their influence on speech) that are consciously realized by the speaker in the process of generating speech (writing a scientific work or newspaper article, etc.), and, on the other hand, factors independent of the desires of the speaker (for example, gender, age). It is the first ones that are associated with the concept of style, in particular functionality. style (as a conscious phenomenon).
When defining the functionality styles and their classification, it is of paramount importance to rely on the type of activity corresponding to one or another form of social consciousness, since the nomination “sphere of communication” is broad and vague. Based on it, V.A. Avrorin identifies 12 spheres of communication, and Yu.M. Skrebnev generally believes that there are an infinite number of them. Meanwhile, it was the correlation in the style of the sphere of communication with the specified extrafactor that made it possible to identify five intuitively realized functions. styles (usually studied in stylistics different countries): scientific, official business, journalistic, artistic, colloquial and, naturally, religious.
2. Linguistic and extralinguistic factors that shaped the phonetic and grammatical structure of modern English
2.1 Extralinguistic reasons for the replenishment of the English language
The complexity of the meaning of a word, the mandatory but flexible relationship of its components - denotation, concept and form - makes it possible to correlate one name with several denotations. The essence of rethinking the meaning of a word is that the name of one denotation extends to another if their concepts are somewhat similar. At the same time, the word continues to exist in its original form. The development and change in the meaning of a word is influenced by both the laws of the language system and extra-linguistic changes in the life of society. Both can be considered both diachronically and synchronically; however, taking into account that the moment of entry into the language of a changed meaning is rarely recorded accurately, and the process of rethinking itself occurs in the language almost continuously, we will not separate one plan from another, noting only that changes in the meaning of a word are determined by the various needs of the linguistic society. Conventionally, they can be divided into two groups - extralinguistic (events occurring in the life of a linguistic community) and linguistic (related to processes occurring within the language system). Some linguists also especially note the so-called “expressive need,” i.e., the desire to give a name more imagery. Let us once again note the conventionality and approximate nature of such a division, since the rethinking of meaning reflects complex cognitive processes, in which external and internal factors that influence the knowledge of reality and the objectification of formed concepts are also closely intertwined.
First of all, a change in the meaning of a word is likely when a new denotation appears in the life of society - an object or concept. Thus, with the development of electrical engineering, a new component appears in the word core (horny capsule containing seeds of apple, pear, etc.), naming a new object - bar of soft iron forming center of electro-magnet or induction coil. The fireplace reflector, screen, which received a new function with the advent of the magic lantern and then the film and television screen, lends its name to a new concept, thereby changing the scope of the word's meaning. The most characteristic in this regard is the layer of terminological vocabulary (see, for example, antennae, pilot, cabin, to sail, etc).
A change in the meaning of a word can also be associated with a change in the concept of something that already exists. For example, the concept of a small quantity, conveyed by the word atom, until the 19th century. applied to any objects (an atom of a girl). With the development of physics, the concept of small quantities changes and the word atom acquires a terminological meaning (supposed ultimate particle or matter). The change in the concept of the object of study also led to a change in the meaning of the word probe, initially - “surgical instrument for exploring wound”, later - “an instrument for exploring outer space (lunar probe)”.
Another reason for changing the meaning of a word is a change in the denotation itself. In modern English language the verb to sail means any smooth movement in space (travel over, glide through), whereas initially it was associated specifically with sailing (travel on water by use of sails). A change in the method of movement, first by water, and then by land and air, led to a change in the meaning of the verb. The hand mill, mill, with the development of industry turned into a factory building (building fitted with machinery), influencing the meaning of the word. Hospice (house of rest for travelers, esp. one kept by religious order), having changed its function, becomes a place where they finish their life path hopelessly ill.
Among the extralinguistic reasons for changing the meaning of a word, the so-called euphemistic substitutions should be especially highlighted. Euphemism (Greek eo - “beautiful”, phemo - “I say”) is usually called a more delicate designation of a phenomenon or object that is undesirable to be mentioned for moral and ethical reasons. So, instead of the word cancer, rumour, it is preferable to say growth; instead of fatal - inoperable, etc. A large number of euphemisms are used, in particular, to denote death: pass away, perish, join the better, kick the bucket, go to green pastures, etc. As is easy to see, euphemization affects all stylistic levels of speech and is not limited to the selection of a synonymous lexical unit. In the words chosen for these purposes, a new component of meaning appears: pass away - not only to move in space, but also to change physical state; the better - not only an assessment of the quality of someone, but also an indication that they are dead; etc. Euphemization is often used by journalists to soften the effect on the reader of certain events of a political, social or commercial nature. In this regard, one cannot fail to mention the recently very widespread concept of “political correctness”. Going back, according to some researchers, to the expression correct thinking, introduced into use by Mao Zedong, the phrase has been around since the early 80s. means “correct”, i.e. “reflecting the prevailing opinion”, designation of something. “Politically correct” designations are usually required when the topic of conversation concerns issues of race, gender or social relations. It is very popular to replace the word crisis with the euphemism depression, the words starvation - undernourishment, unemployed - redundant, salary cuts - adjustment, secondhand - pre-owned, etc. Let us note by the way that the abuse of euphemisms provokes criticism from the readers themselves: “Government spokesmen talk about REDEPLOYMENT of American troops; they mean WITHDRAWAL. When sociologists refer to BLACKS LIVING IN SLUMS they are likely to mumble something about NON-WHITES IN A CULTURALLY DEPRIVED ENVIRONMENT" (“Tune”).
2.2 Linguistic reasons for changing the meaning of a word
During the formation of the modern English language system, very actual problem There was a so-called struggle of synonyms, when borrowings coming into the English language displaced the original or earlier borrowed words into another sphere. The result of such a struggle was changes in the semantic structure or stylistic affiliation of both words. This process took place especially actively during the Middle English period. It was at this time that, under the influence of borrowed words, the original ones often changed their stylistic affiliation. This happened, for example, with the original word foe, which, with the appearance of the borrowing enemi (modern English, enemy), was forced out into the narrow stylistic sphere of poetisms. Similar examples are synonymous pairs valley/dale and people/folk with more limited use of the latter, native component. The struggle between synonyms can lead to more significant changes in the semantic structure of a word, as happened, for example, with the verb starve, which in the Old English period meant “to die.” Under the pressure of the synonym die, its meaning first narrowed to “to die of hunger”, and then changed altogether (modern English - “to starve”). Above was an example of a false etymologization of the word reindeer, in which the second element in the Old English period meant “animal.” Under the influence of the French borrowing animal, the meaning of the original word was narrowed to the designation of one of the types of animal, deer.
Another linguistic reason for changing the meaning of a word is considered to be ellipsis, i.e., an abbreviation of a phrase, in which so-called semantic condensation occurs - the remaining word absorbs the meaning of the entire combination. A similar phenomenon is observed in the Russian language (cf. A worker (working person) came to the dining room (dining hall, room)). Examples of ellipsis are numerous: a weekly (paper); a musical (show); (policy of) brinkmanship; (steam) engine, etc. As can be seen from the examples, as a result of shortening the phrase, the remaining component seems to absorb the meanings of all the others, often even changing its part-speech affiliation.
A very similar process occurs when the meaning of a word changes under the influence of a stable combination, a phraseological unit (PU). Standing out from such a unit, the word seems to carry away traces of phraseological meaning. Thus, in the word brick the meaning tactless appears under the influence of the phraseological phrase to drop a brick - to say or do smth tactless; the word chaff (outer part of grain, removed before the grain is used as food) takes on the meaning of “easy trick” in the saying An old bird isn’t caught with chaff. Such changes in meaning are not always registered in dictionaries, since their connection with phraseological units is too strict and the actualization of meaning occurs in a fairly narrow context. Of course, however, changes in the overall scope of the meaning of a word under the influence of these reasons are quite regular.
A special place among the linguistic reasons for changing the meaning of a word is occupied by a shift in meaning based on the transfer of a name. The possibility of such a transfer lies in the very essence of the meaning of a word, namely in the flexible connection between its components such as concept and form. In the presence of different denotations, partial generality of the concept is possible, which is reflected in the use of the old form for it. Types of transfer depend on the type of connections between the denotation and its name. It is customary to distinguish two main types of such connections - implicational (based on a logical premise, implying a connection between a part and the whole) and qualifying (assuming the presence of a common feature in different denotations). Each of these types combines different types transfer. Let's take a closer look at them.
The implication type includes such types of transfer as metonymy, synecdoche and conversion, and we should not forget that we are not talking about stylistic devices related to the sphere of speech activity, but about natural linguistic processes of formation and change in the meaning of a lexical unit.
Metonymic transfer (metonymy - “renaming”) presupposes the presence of a real, rather than imaginary connection between two denotations that are in a relationship of contiguity. Such a connection can be a spatial relationship; in this case, the name of the place refers to people or objects that are constantly there: town (The whole town was asleep); hall (The hall was silent); Whitehall - government; British Government (policy); kettle (The kettle is boiling), etc.
A type of metonymy is synecdoche (“co-implying”), a type of transfer in which either the name of a part is used to designate the whole (the Crown = monarchy), or the specific name replaces the generic name (penny = (a pretty penny)a good sum of money) , or form singular denotes a plural number of denotations (royal horse = cavalry), etc. Usually, two directions of action of synecdoche are distinguished - the use of the name of the part instead of the whole (pars pro toto) and the use of the name of the whole instead of the part (totum pars parte), which is much less common (lunch - meal taken > (packet lunch) food for the meal).
Conversion, which reflects a view of any sign of denotation from different angles, also belongs to the implicature type of transfer of meaning. Thus, the adjective sad can convey opposite meanings in the sentences It is sad (experiences a state of sadness) and His story is sad (causes a state of sadness). Similar conversion relationships are observed when transferring meaning in the verb wear: The coat wears long (the subject is exposed to action) and Does not wear a coat (the subject acts).
The qualifying type of transfer is based on the presence of a common feature in several denotations and includes metaphor, synesthesia and functional transfer. It is worth recalling once again that we do not mean stylistic devices, the effect of which is limited by the framework of a certain text, but the process of development of the meaning of a word in the language system.
Metaphor (lit., “transfer”) is a union under a common name of several denotations that have common feature. Metaphorical transfer is clearly visible in the example of the polysemantic word bridge, the variant meanings of which are united by the common feature smth to join two parts over smth:
1. Structure carrying a road across a river, etc.
2. Platform over and across the deck of a ship.
3. Upper bony part of a nose.
4. Movable part over which the strings of a violin etc. are stretched. Linguistic metaphors are also eye (of a needle), neck (of a bottle), based on the similarity of shape, foot (of a mountain), back (of a boot), similar in their location in relation to the denotation being defined, as well as a whole series slang names, for example nut, onion in the meaning of head.
Synesthesia (“sympathy”) unites denotations based on the similarity of their perception by the senses. Thus, synaesthetic transfer manifests itself in the meaning of the adjective soft with its different compatibility:
soft music, voice, whispers - quiet, pleasant to hear, tender;
soft surface, ground, velvet - smooth and delicate, pleasant to touch or walk on.
A more complex example of synesthesia is the figurative meanings of sharp:
sharp voice, sound - piercing, going deep into or through;
sharp feelings, pain, flavor - producing a physical sensation like cutting or piercing;
sharp mind, intelligence - acute, keen, deep.
All these meanings are based on the seme deep (cutting) common to the direct meaning, as in the expression sharp knife - with a fine cutting edge, not blunt. It is interesting that the complex of figurative meanings of the adjective sharp also includes unscrupulous, not altogether honest (lawyer, practice). Here there is a connection with another component of direct meaning - the quality of a weapon capable of causing harm or pain. But the nature of the transfer changes, pointing not to sympathy, but to the commonality of the function of denotations.
The functional transfer of meaning is based precisely on such commonality, when two different denotations receive a common name because they perform the same or similar function. Thus, the method of movement turned out to be the same for an insect and a heavy machine, which is reflected in their common name, caterpillar. Green areas in the city perform the same function as the lungs of a person or animal, and this feature allows us to call them a common word with the respiratory organs of living beings - lungs (of a town). Using the example of the adjective sharp, it was clear that functional transfer can coexist with metaphorical transfer within the scope of the meaning of the same word. It is often difficult to separate these types. Thus, in the word leg there is undoubtedly a similarity of both form and function: one of the parts of an animal's or a person's body; support for (a body, a cover of a table, etc.). The functional community unites the meanings of the word stool-pigeon: a) pigeon used as a decoy; b) (fig) person acting as a decory, e. g. one employed by the police to trap a criminal.
All the reasons discussed above lead to a change in the meaning of the word. According to the logical scheme proposed by G. Paul back in the 19th century, a change in meaning can take place in several directions: 1) expansion of meaning; 2) narrowing of meaning; 3) displacement (shift or transfer) of the value. When the meaning expands, the specific concept inherent in the denotation develops into a generic one, in other words, generalization occurs. Narrowing of meaning, on the contrary, assumes that the original meaning acts as a generic one, and the changed one as one of its specific components. In modern linguistic literature, the term “specialization”, introduced by M. Breal, is more often used, since it more accurately conveys what happens to the original volume of the concept. Changes of the third type (displacement (shift, transfer) of values), unlike the first two types, do not occur gradually; As a rule, such a transfer is carried out by the speaker consciously. The consolidation of the result in the language occurs under the condition that the basis for the transfer is recognized by the linguistic majority, i.e., stable collective associations are formed.
Expansion of the meaning of a word most often occurs when a new denotation appears or the concept of an already existing object, action or phenomenon changes. The set of semes changes, the subject-logical (denotative) meaning covers a larger circle of referents. For example, the verb to bootleg, which originally figuratively described the smuggling of alcohol into the United States of America during Prohibition, expanded its meaning (sell alcoholic drinks illegally) to a more general one (sell anything illegally). Here, the change in meaning is clearly influenced by external, extralinguistic circumstances reflecting changes in business. Another example of generalization under the influence of external factors is the development of the meaning of the noun holiday. Initially d.-a. halig dajg - “a religious feast day”, then c.-a. holi day - church festival falling on a week day, the modern word denotes a broader concept - day of rest from work.
The reason for the expansion of meaning may also be linguistic. Thus, the struggle between the synonyms season and spring led to the expansion of the meaning of season from “part of the year between winter and summer” to “any part of the year”.
The same reasons can lead to different results. In particular, the same struggle of synonyms can end with a narrowing of the meaning of one of them, as happened with the noun affection (originally - any feeling, as a result of the division of “spheres of influence” with the noun feeling - feeling of love) or hound (originally - any dog, later - a certain kind of dog). A narrowing of the meaning of a word is also possible for extralinguistic reasons, for example, when using words from general literary vocabulary in the terminological layer. This is clearly seen in the example of the word atom discussed above.
A shift, or displacement, of meaning is observed for the most part when transferring a value from one denotation to another: beauty - 1) quality; 2) a person of this quality (conversion result). We find a similar change in linguistic metaphors, synecdoche, metonymic transfers and the results of synesthesia. When shifted, the volume of the value remains the same, but is correlated with a different number of denotations. The reasons for the shift may also be non-linguistic. Changes in the concept of something or the emergence of new denotations can lead to a shift in meaning, as happened, for example, with the word caterpillar, discussed in the previous paragraph. A shift in meaning may also be accompanied by a narrowing or expansion of it. For example, d.-a. gebed (“prayer”), with the help of metonymic transfer, acquired in the modern English period the meaning bead (for counting prayers), which developed by the modern period the narrowed meaning “small ball of wood, glass, etc with a hole through it, for threading with others on a string or wire."
Another, evaluative result of a change in value may be its deterioration or improvement. In the first case, a neutral designation, for example, social status in the word villain (feudal serf, farm-servant) under the influence public opinion deteriorated to evaluative (person guilty or capable of great wickedness, scoundrel). Another example is the appearance of negative evaluativeness in the word boor. Originally, this Germanic word meant only a peasant (a peasant, farmer). Already by the beginning of the Early Modern English period it was used in the meaning of “illiterate, dull or insensitive peasant”, and in modern dictionary we find the definition of boor as “a rude, ill-mannered person.” The opposite result of the development of meaning is observed in the words urbane (initially the same as modern urban - living or situated in town, then - courteous, elegant, or refined in manner), marshal (servant looking after horses - general officer of highest rank), nice (d.-a. - foolish, c.-a. - pleasant), etc. It is interesting to compare the multidirectional processes in the development of the semantics of the words boy and knave.
Knave, d.-a. cnafa, c.-a. knave - originally English word, which originally had an evaluatively neutral meaning “a male infant, a boy, or youth” (cf. modern German Knabe with this meaning). In parallel, the meaning “a boy or lad employed as servant”, “a stable boy, groom” developed; a cook's servant" and, accordingly, "a man low in rank or position." By the end of the Middle English period, this is what becomes predominant last value, which quite soon leads, under the influence of social relations, to the emergence and consolidation in the language of the meaning “rogue, unprincipled man.” Traces of the original meaning are preserved only in the use of the word knave to name a playing card. Thus, we see a clear deterioration in the meaning of the word knave.
A similar process, but with the opposite result, is visible in the semantic history of the word boy.
In the Middle English period, boi(e), like knave, serves as a designation for a servant (servant, person of low rank and position) and can be used to mean “a person lacking refinement, an ordinary fellow.” Later, however, the word boy loses its negative assessment and in modern language reinforces only the neutral meaning “a youth, a male child”. Obviously, here we can talk about improving the value.
Thus, under the influence of reasons of both linguistic and extra-linguistic properties, meaning can change both quantitatively and in qualitatively.
The soundographic complex has a connection with several denotations; its variants accumulate in the volume of the meaning of a word, which leads to the appearance of polysemy (polysemy).
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In the process of communication, verbal and nonverbal factors of speech influence are closely interrelated, however, there are noticeable differences in their role at different stages of communication.
Verbal communication is completely communicative, because people use language as a means of encoding information. In verbal communication, we use both phonological means of encoding information (segmental and supersegmental phonetic units) and grammatical means (morphology and syntax). Extralinguistic aspects of speech are not encoded, but contain information about the personality of the speaker. Thus, extralinguistic aspects of speech are informative, but not communicative.
Linguistic factors influencing the success of speech primarily include intonation. With the help of intonation we convey the information contained in our statement. It consists of the basic properties of sound: pitch, volume and tempo. Some scientists also include timbre (voice quality) in the properties of sound. The most important prosodic means are conveyed through the pitch of the pitch of the voice and the intonation pattern. Different levels of intonation scales are used in a specific sequence to express different shades of meaning. As a rule, with the help of intonation we can attract the attention of the interlocutor and focus on the most important aspects of our statement, as well as regulate speech behavior. By varying the strength of your voice, you can convey different shades of meaning to a statement. The correct stress in words is a necessary condition successful language acquisition. Stress serves as an indicator of the level of speech culture, and foreigners who involuntarily change the stress in a word may have difficulty understanding speech by ear. Changing the pace of speech is also important for successful communication. When we slow down or speed up the rate at which we pronounce syllables, words and sentences, we can convey several shades of meaning, for example, when we speak quickly, it indicates that we are excited or impatient, and when we slow down, it means that we are puzzled by something. or we want to focus the attention of the interlocutor.
Extralinguistic factors influencing the success of speech include nonverbal means of communication. Nonverbal communication factors are most important when people get to know each other, make a first impression, and in the process of assigning an interlocutor to any category - professional, age, intellectual, social, gender, etc.
When we communicate with each other, we are constantly sending and receiving nonverbal signals. Our body language—the gestures we convey, the way we sit, how quickly and loudly we speak, how close we stand, the way we make eye contact—transmits different signals to the other person. We can transmit these signals during communication. Even when we are silent, we still continue to communicate using non-verbal gestures. Often, what we say and what signals we send with body language are two completely different things. Faced with these different signals that our interlocutor sends us, the listener must choose whether to believe in the verbal or non-verbal message, and in most cases, he will choose the message that was sent to him through body language, because it is natural, unconscious language that conveys our true feelings and intentions. The way we listen, look, move and react tells the other person whether we are interested or not, how closely we listen and how we feel about the speaker. When our nonverbal cues match the words we speak, trust and rapport between participants increases. If our body language contradicts our words, then an atmosphere of tension, mistrust and embarrassment is created. If we want to become a good speaker, it is important to be more attentive not only to the body language and nonverbal behavior of others, but also to be more attentive to ourselves. Nonverbal communication is a fast-paced process that requires full concentration and attention. When we are thinking about what to say in the next sentence, daydreaming, or thinking about something else, we almost always miss the nonverbal cues that the participants in the conversation send us. To fully understand what is happening, we need to remain focused at all times.
Our emotional response also plays a significant role in the communication process. Emotions and feelings expressed by partners through the so-called “non-verbal”, i.e. non-verbal means are a kind of indicators of the partners’ attitude towards each other, towards the situation and content of communication, etc. Since understanding your emotions and the emotions of other people is the basis for successfully influencing your own behavior and the behavior of other people, it is important to understand the signals of nonverbal communication and be able to interpret them correctly.
In conclusion, we should note that both linguistic and extralinguistic factors equally influence the effectiveness of our speech. The effectiveness of communication is determined not only by the degree of understanding of the interlocutor’s words, but also by the ability to correctly assess the behavior of the participants in communication, their facial expressions, gestures, movements, posture, direction of gaze, i.e. understand the language of nonverbal communication.
Dictionary of sociolinguistic terms
Extralinguistic factors
(Social factors)
Parameters of social (extra-linguistic) reality that determine changes in language, both global and more specific. Global action E.f. leads to changes affecting the entire or significant part of the language subsystem. Events such as decisions to create a written language for a previously unwritten language, legislative and material support for the functioning of the language in certain areas, determine the emergence of new forms of existence of a given language ( literary language), the emergence of new functional styles, accompanied by changes in vocabulary (replenishment of the vocabulary, development of the semantic structure of words, changes in the valency of words, etc.), in syntax, stylistics. An example of the impact of more private E.f. is the development of new genres, stylistic trends in literature, which determine the emergence of new units in the terminology of literary criticism (conceptualists, mannerism). To E.f. include demographic parameters (number of people speaking a particular language, method of settlement, age differentiation of native speakers, etc.), social structure of society, cultural and linguistic features (presence of written traditions, culturally determined language contacts), etc. Study of the relationships between elements of social, extralinguistic reality (E.f.) and elements of language is the task of sociolinguistic correlative analysis.
internal factors of language development
See also:(language development),
As you know, pronunciation is a heterogeneous phenomenon that can change under the influence of many factors. These factors lie outside the system of linguistic factors, therefore it is considered more appropriate to call them extralinguistic factors. So what are these factors?
First of all, it is worth noting that these factors form an extralinguistic situation, which, in turn, determines the choice of linguistic, namely phonetic, means.
An extralinguistic situation can be described using its three components, which are purpose, participants and setting. These components distinguish the situation as the context within which interaction occurs.
First of all, the extralinguistic situation is related to the purpose of communication. The goal can be described as the motor that sets up the chassis for the environment and participants to go together, it is interconnected with the other two components in a very intricate way. A goal prescribes the actions of participants in relation to a specific situation. Such goals may be considered in the light common types activity, as well as in light of the type of activity and specific content together.
Today, there are a significant number of common activities, for example: working, teaching, learning, holding a meeting, communicating, playing, etc. These types of activities are recognized by society as units of interaction that can be identified. It should be noted that the type of activity does not directly determine the goal in the situation. It only sets a number of possible goals that participants will focus on during the activity. Defining the goal requires clarification of the content at a more detailed level than just by type of activity. This is called specific content or topic. Moreover, specific content will largely influence the choice of lexical means, while pronunciation is unlikely to be influenced.
Now we should turn to another component of the extralinguistic situation, which is the participants in communication. Speech changes with its participants in all sorts of ways. It is a marker of the different characteristics of each speaker, as well as the relationships between the participants in the communication.
Characteristics of people can be divided into those that describe the person as an individual and those that characterize the person as a member of a significant social group. The main thing for studying and understanding the pronunciation features of communication participants is their social characteristics. In other words, the way people speak reflects their background and life experiences.
For example, the age of participants may be associated with a person's role in the family and in social group, with the assignment of authority and status and with the attribution of different levels of competence. A person's speech behavior not only conveys information about his/her age, but also about the age of the listener. Thus, older people speak and are spoken to in a different way from the speech behavior of younger people. For example, old man usually speaks in a high-pitched voice and speaks at a slower speed. People generally use high tones when speaking to younger people, particularly children.
Speaking of participants, there is one more characteristic to consider. This characteristic is the emotional state of the speaker at the time of speech production, which is most likely reflected in his/her speech.
The last component that must be taken into account is called the setting or environment. It is defined by several features. The first of these is the physical focus of the participants. It is determined to some extent by the activities in which they are involved. For example, public speech and private conversation will differ phonetically in many ways.
The situation can be decomposed into several aspects: public - private, impersonal - personal, polite - impolite, high-cultural - low-cultural, and other rating scales. In most cases, these scales fall under one bipolar aspect - formal - informal. The kind of language that is appropriate in a formal setting is different from that that is appropriate in an informal setting. Such differentiation is subject to and is a consequence of universal principles, therefore, the “higher” forms of language are characterized by certain features, such as improved syntax and vocabulary, phonological accuracy and rhythm, while the “lower” forms of language have such qualities as ellipsis, repetition, high speed and blurred speech. Thus, pronunciation features can be considered markers of the setting, or at least their position in relation to the formal-informal aspect.
Of course, there are many factors that determine variation in language use. In this case, we mean changes in the use of phonetic means. The basis for their understanding and description is related to the permanent and final features of the situational circumstances of a linguistic case, which are essential for phonetic analysis. Indeed, a sufficient amount of attention has been paid to this problem, and a lot of information has been obtained using special research. This allows us to identify a number of factors that lead to phonostylistic changes:
the purpose or purpose of communication;
speaker's attitude;
form of communication;
degree of formality;
degree of spontaneity (or degree of preparation or conversion of an oral text to a written one)