How are cause and effect related? How do worldviews and life values ​​relate?

Test topic:

What is the relationship between sensory and rational cognition? Why are they in conflict? And what principle - sensual or rational - prevails in your way of cognition?

Before answering questions, I want to turn to the concepts of sensory and rational knowledge, but first I will give a definition of the concept of "cognition".

Cognition is a process creative activity of a person, aimed at the formation of his knowledge of the world, on the basis of which images, ideas and motives for further behavior arise. In the process of cognition, reality is reproduced in the minds of people. In science, cognition is understood as a special activity, as a result of which people acquire knowledge about various objects, phenomena and processes, about the laws of their course.

In science, two stages of cognition are distinguished - sensory, carried out with the help of the senses, and rational, logical cognition, also called abstract thinking. Consider each of the stages of knowledge.

1. Sensory knowledge.

There are three forms of sensory knowledge: sensation, perception, representation.

Perception(reflection in the mind of a person of objects of the surrounding world with their direct impact on the senses) corresponds to the system of properties of the object (for example, on the one hand, the sensation of the taste of melon, on the other hand, the perception of taste, shape, smell, color of melon in their unity). Perception is the result of the joint activity of different sense organs. Some properties of perception can be distinguished:

1) Objectivity: we perceive specifically something or someone.

2) Integrity: images of perception are complete and complete structures.

3) Meaningfulness: the subject is perceived as a specific subject.

4) Constancy: the constancy of the shape, size, color of the object is fixed.

Feeling(reflection of the properties of individual objects) correspond to certain properties of objects. Sensations can exist outside of perception (cold, darkness), but perception is impossible without sensations. This form of sensory cognition is a part of integral perceptions. Looking at a chair, we perceive it as a whole thing, but at the same time, the sense organs give us information about the individual properties of the chair, for example, about its color.

There are several links between sensation and the object itself. In receptors, external influences are converted from one type of signal to another, encoded and transmitted by means of nerve signals-impulses to the corresponding brain centers, where they are recoded into the "language" of the brain, and are further processed in interaction with past traces.

Sensations can exist outside of perception (cold, darkness), but perception is not possible without sensations. Feelings are parts of integral perceptions. Looking at the table, we perceive it as a whole thing, but at the same time, the sense organs give us information about the individual properties of the chair, for example, about its shape.

And the third form of sensory knowledge is performance. Representation is the reproduction of certain objects or phenomena in the absence of direct sensory perception. All the noted aspects of sensations and perceptions also apply to representation- the third form of sensory knowledge. The main thing in the representation is the absence of a direct connection with the reflected object. There is a detachment from the current situation, generalization, averaging of the image. Compared to perception, the unique, the specific, the singular are smoothed out in the representation. Get into work memory(reproduction of images of objects, in this moment not affecting humans) and imagination.

Memory and the lack of direct connection with the current situation allow you to combine images, their elements, to connect the imagination. Representations allow you to go beyond the given phenomenon, to form images of the future and the past. So, performance- this is the reproduction of certain objects or phenomena in the absence of their direct sensory perception.

The role of sensory reflection is very important:

The sense organs are the only channel that directly connects a person with the outside world;

Without sense organs, a person is not capable of either knowledge or thinking;

The loss of part of the sense organs complicates cognition, but does not block its possibilities;

The sense organs provide the minimum information that is necessary for the knowledge of objects.

Cognitive abilities of a person are connected, first of all, with the sense organs.

2. Rational knowledge.

The second stage of cognition is called rational cognition, or abstract thinking. At this stage, we move from the external properties of objects and phenomena to internal ones, establish the essence of objects, give their definitions, draw conclusions (inferences) about the known. An example of such a conclusion - inference can be the statement: “All people are mortal. I am a man, therefore, and I will die like all people.” The stages of rational cognition are concept, judgment and inference.

A concept is a form of thinking that reflects the general regular connections, sides, signs of phenomena that are fixed in definitions; A judgment is a thought that affirms or denies something about a cognizable object. On the basis of concepts and judgments, inferences are formed, which are reasoning, during which a new judgment (conclusion or conclusion) is logically derived.

3. The ratio of sensory and rational knowledge.

Sensual and rational cognition are two stages of cognition, they are not opposed to each other. Sensual and rational cognition are in constant interaction, form an inseparable unity of the cognitive process. Rational forms of cognition are impossible without forms of sensory cognition. From there they draw their source material. At the level of human consciousness, sensory cognition is under the influence of rational cognition. Sensations, perceptions, ideas of a person carry the characteristics of the spiritual and intellectual activity of consciousness.

Sensual forms play important role in knowledge. Through the senses, a person is in contact with the outside world, so sensory knowledge has a direct character. The human sense organs are the result of a long historical development. Although they are biologically inherited, their degree of perfection is determined by labor activity person. A person is able to significantly develop in himself the subtlety and sharpness of sensory sensations. Thus, artists can distinguish incomparably more shades of color than a common person not professionally working with color.

However, no matter how developed the sense organs are, they are always fundamentally limited in distinguishing external information, which often gave reason to skeptics to doubt the cognitive capabilities of people. Thus, the human ear is able to distinguish sound information in a limited range of sound vibrations. With the help of technology, people overcome the biological limitations of their senses.

Due to the absence of a direct connection between the sense organs and the object, arbitrary images (a mermaid, a centaur) are possible in the representation. At the same time, due to abstraction from the subject, productive human activity is possible. He had first to imagine the ax and the wheel in the form of images before he learned how to make them in practice.

All sensory images do not exist without a person and outside of him. In this sense, they are subjective. At the same time, in terms of their source and content, they are objective, because the information contained in these forms is due to the reflection of the corresponding aspects of the object.

With the help of the sense organs, a person is not able to form images of the essence of cognizable objects. A person overcomes this limitation of feeling with the help of rational thinking. Rational cognition, unlike sensory cognition, is mediated. This means that when thinking about objects, a person does not directly contact them. Initial information about objects in rational thinking is delivered to a person by the senses, or by previous rational cognition.

Logical (rational) thinking has a generalized and abstract character. In thinking, a person is distracted from many sensory-specific features, forms ideas about the general and typical properties of objects, creates logical abstractions (for example, cost, energy, etc.). It is with the help of logical abstractions that the cognizing subject is able to penetrate into the essence of the object being studied.

A logical image exists in the form of a thought about an object. Distinguish between the subject of thought (what we think about), the content of thought (what we represent in thought) and the form of thought (how we think). Basic forms of thought: concept, judgment, conclusion.

From concepts, as from elementary units, all logical reasoning is built. A concept is always a logical abstraction. It is devoid of sensibility. The concept can be understood, but not felt.

AT scientific knowledge the concept acts as an essential image of a thing. It is not independent of the objective world, but always expresses the essence of things in an abstract form. The concept of essence, of course, is not identical with the designation of an object by a symbol or a word. In conceptual thinking there is a figurative preparation of reality with the help of abstractions: the separation of the necessary from the accidental, the essence from the phenomenon, the content from the form.

Through judgment logical thinking acquires special flexibility in the knowledge of the most various properties outside world. If the concept reflects only the general in things, then in judgments it is possible to display single, private, and general signs. Moreover, since any judgment is a connection of concepts, then in judgments one can connect the individual, the particular and the general. For example, "halogen fluorine is a chemical element." The general (chemical element) is associated with the special (halogen) and the singular (fluorine).

nature, life phenomena, etc. Beautiful is always harmonious, it has a sense of proportion. It is no coincidence that even mathematicians say that the true formula is always concise and beautiful in outline.

If we strictly distinguish between art and everyday life, then we can say that beauty is the privilege of art, and utility is the privilege of ordinary life. But such a distinction does not exist, since art actively invades our lives in the form of interior design, furniture, clothing, books, building architecture, design of cars and household appliances, musical environment, song and dance rhythms, etc. And everyday life becomes content of works of art. Such interpenetration ensures the harmony of beauty and usefulness.

Music accompanies people everywhere. Modern technology has made it accessible to everyone. Today we can talk about a musical, voiced way of life. Light, entertaining music has become the basis of the musical diet, the so-called consumer music. It causes listeners more and more new need for itself. Such music includes a hit - a fashionable song of a dance nature, which, as a rule, is based on a text of love content.

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Knowledge interferes with faith, can cast doubt on the existence of God, therefore, it is necessary to protect religion from philosophy - Tertullian "I believe, because it is absurd" (2nd century).

Knowledge, philosophy help faith, rational arguments remove all the contradictions that arise in a believer. Thus, faith is strengthened.

Lecture number 11. Medieval philosophy (end) and the philosophy of the Renaissance.

Nominalists and realists of the Middle Ages. The problem of theodicy.

Pantheism in the philosophy of the Renaissance.

Nominalists and realists of the Middle Ages. The problem of theodicy.

Knowledge and faith.

Only faith helps to know, faith is the basis of knowledge. “I believe in order to understand” - thinking must be subordinated to faith (Anselm of Canterbury, ??? and others)

- "I know in order to believe" - ​​Thomas Aquinas. Knowledge strengthens faith.

The dispute between nominalists and realists about the nature of universals.

- dispute– the nature of general concepts (universals). What is the relationship between the general and the singular?

From the point of view of nominalists, the divine will is the basis of everything. God creates all things, objects, and general concepts are only names of things, secondary to things.

Extreme nominalization: general concepts are just shaking the air.

Nominalism

The word "nominalism" comes from the Latin "nomon" - a name. General concepts (universals) - names of things, names.

How is a name different from a general concept? Name is Ivan general concept- human.

Names, titles, designations - can be arbitrary (example - different names for the same thing in different languages).

General concepts - association in one word common features for a number of objects.

Representatives: R. Bacon, W. Ockham, Roscellin and others - mainly at the stage of late scholasticism.

"Occam's Battle"

- “One should not unnecessarily multiply essences”

The point is that to study the phenomena, while doing a minimum of general concepts.

Realism.

Medieval realism differs from realism in the traditional sense of the word;

Medieval realism:

“At the heart of everything is the divine mind.” They refer to the Bible: "In the beginning was the word." In reality, there are only general concepts. Things are secondary.

- Representatives of realism: Thomas Aquinas, Anselm of Canterbury, Augustine and others.

Conventionalism.

This is a dialectical combination of opposites - the general and the individual.

There is no opposition of concepts and things (general and singular)

The position of conventionalism: the common is in the things themselves

Representative of conventionalism - Abelard

The problem of theodicy.

- Theodicy- from "theo" - god, "dice" or "dike" - the goddess of justice.

Theodicy is God's justification for the existence of evil. This is the question of the origin of evil. Was evil part of the plan for the creation of the world?

If God is good and omnipotent, why does he allow evil?

Philosophy is the servant of theology. That is, religion provides ready-made truths (in this case, God is not guilty of the existence of evil), and philosophy must prove this truth. Those. philosophy is not free in the search for truth.

Theodicy: ways to solve the problem.

- Gnostics(2nd century). Valentine, Vasilides. There are 2 gods - god the father (creator, demiurge) and god the son (redeemer). God the son is a good god, does no harm to anyone, does not blame. All evil is from God the Father. He created an imperfect world, severely punishes people (the burning of Sodom and Gomorrah, the global flood, etc.). Subsequently, Gnosticism was declared a heresy, and the books were burned.

- Manichaeans. There are two worlds - the material, corporeal, natural world and the spiritual, divine world. Good from the spiritual world, evil from the material. In man, these two principles fight. The bodily pulls a person down, the spiritual - elevates to God.

- Theodicy(Augustine). On the one hand, the world as a creation of God cannot be unkind, on the other hand, the existence of evil is undoubted. Evil does not belong to nature. There is no absolute opposition between good and evil. Evil is the lack of good.

The theory of two truths.

At the stage of scholasticism, the theory of two truths (Eriugena) appears.

There are two kinds of truths: the truths of religion (faith) and the truths of science (knowledge). There is no contradiction between them.

Thomas Aquinas.

Systematizer of Medieval Philosophy (13th century)

He spoke about the need for rational proof of the truths of religion (you can only believe in what you know)

The modern Catholic Church has declared the teachings of Thomas Aquinas the theoretical core of catalicism.

Evidence for the existence of God.

Every object, every phenomenon exists for a reason. The phenomenon that is the cause must itself be caused by something. This cannot continue indefinitely - there must be a root cause that is not conditioned by anything. It can only be God.

All things, objects and phenomena are perfect in one way or another. There is nothing in the world that is completely perfect.

How can you know that one is more perfect than the other?

Only to compare with absolute perfection - it can only be God.

Medieval philosophy (general conclusions)

All philosophy was religious, closely connected with the Christian religion.

There was no freedom in the search for truth; proved the truths of religion, while relying on authorities (the Bible, the works of Aristotle)

Compared with ancient philosophy, medieval philosophy has moved forward in the interpretation of the text, in honing concepts, strict logic. This was facilitated by disputes in universities.

At the stage of late scholasticism, she called for an experimental study of nature

How are worldview and life values ​​related?

Answer

Worldview - a set of views, assessments, principles and figurative representations that determine the most general vision, understanding of the world, a person's place in it, as well as his life positions, programs of behavior, actions. It gives its activity an organized, meaningful and purposeful character.

Life values ​​are the values ​​of a person that really organize his life. A person can choose his values, but if he has chosen them, they become above him and he obeys them. Values ​​are like rules, and both are a set of prescriptions, but if a person sometimes wants to get around the rules, then life values ​​​​are rules that are internally binding on a person, this is why a person follows himself and what he cannot change.

A person necessarily presupposes the presence of his own view of the world. In other words, a person without a worldview is impossible. This word is used to define a system of views on the world, on a person's place in it and on the meaning of his life and activity. That is, these are, first of all, ideas, values, views of a general nature that create a certain picture of the world and man.

Any person who claims to be called a personality has a system of such views. For some people, their entire system of views is determined by their belief in the value of humanity, humane and fair treatment of other people, and the desire to work for the common good. The picture of the world of such personalities covers the whole world in all its diversity. They know how to enjoy the diversity and richness of the colors of the world around them. They are characterized by both moral principles and lofty ideals of beauty.

Other people are quite happy that their little world is limited to their home, loved ones and relatives and their good. Worldly worries and storms make up the meaning of life for them. They do not think about the eternal questions about the meaning of life.

Still others do not see anything outside their own "I" and do not recognize other people as equal with their rights and opportunities. The whole world of such people revolves around a single light. Their picture of the world is narrowed down to their own concerns and achievements.

How are cause and effect related?

Can we say that the effect is different from the cause? No, we cannot, because in this case it is impossible to prove that the given effect is the effect of this, and not some other cause. Perhaps the effect and the cause are identical? Neither, because then it makes no sense to distinguish between them at all. Could it be that cause and effect are both the same and different? No, this is also impossible, because this view will combine the errors of the first two statements. Can we say that a cause produces an effect? It is impossible, because in this case we must assume the possibility of the following alternatives: a) the effect was already present in the cause; b) the effect did not preexist in the cause, but reappeared; c) both took place. These alternatives are equally impossible. In the first case, one cannot speak of cause and effect at all, since they are simply one and the same. In the second case, something incredible is asserted, since being and non-being, like life and death, light and darkness, are opposite (mutually exclusive) opposites, and if something does not exist, then it cannot be - “no” cannot turn into “yes” , from "nothing" can not get "something". The third case combines the incorrectness of both the first and second options. Thus, a cause does not produce an effect, nothing can be produced at all. Causality is empty.

What is time?

It is past, present and future. But, it is clear that none of these dimensions is “original”, they exist only relative to each other, completely determined by each other: the concept of “past” makes sense only in relation to the future and present, the future - in relation to the past and present, and the present - in relation to past and future. But the past is gone. The future is not yet. Where is the real then? Where is that very moment between the past and the future, which is called "life"? After all, this supposedly real "present" exists in relation to two fictions - that which no longer exists, and that which does not yet exist.

Thus, a strange picture emerges: empirically there are causality, and time, and space, and movement, but as soon as we try to rationally analyze the categories denoting these phenomena, we immediately find ourselves immersed in an ocean of insoluble contradictions. Consequently, all philosophical categories are only products of our mental activity, completely unsuitable for describing reality as it is.

The first level of knowledge is the level of empirical reality (sanvritti satya), corresponding to daily practice. With regard to this level, one can speak of the conditional existence of causality, movement, time, space, unity, multiplicity, and the like. This level is different from pure illusion - dreams, hallucinations, mirages and other appearances, like "the horns of a hare", "the wool of a turtle" or "the death of the son of a barren woman." But it is just as illusory in relation to the level of absolute or supreme truth (paramartha satya). This level is inaccessible to logical discourse, but is comprehensible by the forces of yogic intuition.

Vishnu could not create the world...

First, theists say that since everything has a cause, the world as a whole must also have a cause, and that cause is God. However, in this case, God must also have his own reason, she - her own, and so on ad infinitum. It is completely incomprehensible why the chain of causation should end with God. Secondly, every action presupposes some goal, and the presence of such a goal is the imperfection of the doer. If God creates the world, it means that he needs it for some reason, he lacks something, and therefore he is not perfect and self-sufficient, which contradicts the very idea of ​​God. This means that either God does not create the world, or it is not perfect, that is, it is not God in the theistic sense. If God creates the world without a motive and purpose, then he is like a little unreasonable child who himself does not understand what he is doing, and this is also incompatible with the concept of God. Finally, the idea of ​​creation itself is self-contradictory: after all, if the world does not exist, then it could not appear, because being cannot arise from non-existence, and something cannot arise from nothing.