Liberal reforms of the 60s.

Conversions to Russian Empire The 60-70s of the century before last are called liberal reforms. The pivotal event of the long-term process was the Great Peasant Reform of 1861. It determined the course of further bourgeois reforms and reorganizations taken by the government of Alexander II. It was necessary to reorganize the political superstructure, rebuild the court, army and much more.

Thus, Alexander II’s understanding of the urgent need to carry out peasant reform led him, in the course of implementing the plan, to carry out a set of transformations in all spheres of public life in Russia. Without wanting it, the emperor took steps towards a bourgeois monarchy, which was based on the transition to an industrial society, market economy and parliamentarism. The assassination of the Tsar in March 1881 turned the country's direction in a different direction.

Military, educational, peasant and judicial reforms were the main transformations carried out in Russia in the 60s and 70s of the century, and thanks to them the country overcame its significant backwardness from the advanced powers.

However, the reforms of Alexander II were not as ideal and did not proceed as smoothly as they should have been. The aristocratic character of Russian society remained to a certain extent even after the much-desired liberal reforms were carried out.

What is liberalism

Liberalism is a direction of socio-political and philosophical thought that proclaims human rights and freedoms as the highest value. The influence of the state and other structures, including religion, on a person in a liberal society is usually limited by the constitution. In economics, liberalism is expressed in the inviolability of private property, freedom of trade and entrepreneurship.

Reasons for liberal reforms

The main reason for liberal reforms is Russia’s lag behind the advanced European countries, To mid-19th century, which has become especially noticeable. Another reason was peasant uprisings, the number of which increased sharply by the mid-1850s; popular uprisings threatened the existing political system and autocratic power, so the situation had to be saved.

Prerequisites for reforms

Russian society in all periods of modern times was very diverse. Complete conservatives here coexisted with liberals, zealots of antiquity coexisted with innovators, people with free views; supporters of autocracy tried to get along with adherents of a limited monarchy and republicans. By the mid-nineteenth century, the contradictions between the “old” and “new” Russians intensified, as a whole galaxy of enlightened nobles grew up, eager for large-scale changes in the country. The imperial house had to make concessions in order to maintain supreme power.

Reform objectives

The main task of liberal reforms is to overcome the social, political, military and intellectual backwardness of the Russian Empire. The task of abolishing serfdom, which by that time had become morally outdated and was slowing down, was especially acute. economic development countries. Another task is to show activity “from above”, from the side of the tsarist government, until the revolutionaries take up radical transformations.

Reform of zemstvo and city management

After the abolition of serfdom, the nobility became concerned about the strengthening of its role in political life countries. The government of reformers sensitively grasped the mood of the ruling class and developed zemstvo, and a little later, city reforms.

The reforms were carried out in accordance with the “Regulations on provincial and district local institutions” of January 1, 1864 in 34 provinces of the European part of the empire and the “City Regulations” of June 16, 1870.

	Zemstvo reform	Urban reform
Controls	Administrative bodies zemstvo assembly of the province and zemstvo assembly of the district The executive bodies are the zemstvo government of the province and the zemstvo government of the district.	The head of the city duma and government is the mayor. The administrative body is the City Duma. The executive body is the City Government.
	Opening and financing of schools, hospitals and almshouses; Help for the hungry in lean years; Establishment of local industrial production; Agronomy and veterinary medicine; Statistics.	Urban improvement. Development of local production and trade. Organization of the work of city markets. Education and healthcare. Establishment sanitary standards and the introduction of fire safety measures.
	Members of the zemstvo assembly (vocals) were elected every three years by groups of voters (curias): direct in agricultural and urban; multi-degree in peasant.	The councilors were elected every four years. Three-class electoral system (small, medium and large taxpayers). Institutions and departments, secular and religious institutions, which contributed fees to the city budget, had voting rights.

The main principles of zemstvo and city reforms were:

1. Separation local government from administrative power.
2. Election of governing bodies and all-class representation.
3. Independence in financial and economic matters.

Democratic judicial reform

Judicial, of all liberal reforms, is considered the most consistent. Since 1861, work began on the “Basic provisions for the transformation of the judicial part of Russia.” In 1864, the sovereign approved modern judicial statutes that defined new principles of legal proceedings:

Organizational principles of the court	Inconsistency of the court.
	Permanence and independence of judges.
	Publicity.
	Division of powers of courts.
	Introduction of the institution of jurors.
	Creation of an institute of forensic investigators.
	Introduction of the institute of notaries.
	Election of individual judicial bodies.
	Investigations in political cases are the prerogative of the gendarmerie.
	Death sentences can be imposed by the Senate and military courts.
	Changing the punishment system (abolition of branding and corporal punishment for women).
Court system
	Special.

The Emperor had the right to correct the decisions of all courts through administrative measures.

Overdue army reform

Experience Crimean War showed that Russia needs a massive army with the necessary reserves and a trained officer corps. The rearmament of the army and the restructuring of the military command system are urgently needed. The reform began to be prepared back in 1861 and was implemented in 1874 in the following steps:

1. 15 military districts were created.
2. Establishment of a network of military educational institutions.
3. New military regulations have been introduced.
4. Equipping the army with new types of weapons.
5. Cancellation of the recruitment system.
6. Introduction of universal conscription for army recruitment.

As a result, the combat effectiveness of the Russian army increased significantly.

Educational reform

The establishment of the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” of 1864 and the Charter of the Secondary School solved the problems:

• accessibility of education for all classes;
• monopoly of the state and church in the field of education, permission to zemstvos, public associations and individuals to open educational institutions;
• gender equality, opening higher courses for women;
• expanding the autonomy of universities.

The reform affected all three educational levels and was significant for the development of the country.

Related reforms

In addition to significant reforms, the following were simultaneously carried out:

Financial reform of 1860 - 1864, which consisted of transforming the banking system and strengthening the role of the Ministry of Finance.

Tax reform manifested itself in the abolition of wine farming, the introduction of indirect taxes and the determination of the limits of zemstvo taxation.

The censorship reform abolished previews of works, but introduced a system of sanctions after publication.

Liberal reforms of Alexander II: pros and cons

Name of the reform	The essence of the reform
Judicial reform	A unified system of courts was created, with all classes being equalized before the law. Court hearings became public and also received media coverage. The parties now had the right to use the services of non-state lawyers.	The reform proclaimed equality of rights for all groups of the population. The attitude of the state towards a person was now formed on the basis of his actions, and not his origin.	The reform was inconsistent. For peasants, special volost courts were created with their own system of punishments, which included beatings. If political cases were considered, administrative repression was used even if the verdict was not guilty.
Zemstvo reform	Changes were made to the local government system. Elections were scheduled for zemstvo and district councils, which took place in two stages. The local government was appointed for a four-year term.	Zemstvos dealt with issues of primary education, healthcare, taxation, etc. Local authorities were granted a certain autonomy.	Most of the seats in zemstvo government bodies were occupied by nobles; there were few peasants and merchants. As a result, all issues affecting the interests of the peasants were resolved in favor of the landowners.
Military reform	Recruitment was replaced by universal military service, covering all classes. Military districts were created and the main headquarters was founded.	The new system made it possible to reduce the size of the army in peacetime and quickly assemble a large army if necessary. Large-scale rearmament has been carried out. A network of military schools was created, education in which was available to representatives of all classes. Corporal punishment in the army has been abolished.	In some cases, corporal punishment was retained for “fined” soldiers.
Peasant reform	The personal independence of the peasant was legally established, and he was also given a certain plot of land for permanent use with a subsequent right of redemption.	Outdated and outdated serfdom was finally liquidated. An opportunity has emerged to significantly raise the standard of living of the rural population. Thanks to this, it was possible to eliminate the danger of peasant riots, which became commonplace in the country in the 1850s. The reform also made it possible to reach an agreement with the landowners, who remained the full owners of all their lands, with the exception of small plots allocated for peasants.	The quitrent was preserved, which the peasants were obliged to pay to the landowner for several years for the right to use the land; the landowner had the right to set the amount of the quitrent at his own discretion.
Educational reform	A system of real schools was introduced, in which, unlike classical gymnasiums, the emphasis was on teaching mathematics and natural sciences. A significant number of research laboratories were created.	The people had the opportunity to receive a diverse and more secular education, to master the sciences in their modern (at that time) state. In addition, courses began to open higher education for women. The advantage for the ruling class was the elimination of the danger of the spread of revolutionary ideas, since young people were now educated in Russia, and not in the West.	Graduates of real schools were restricted from entering higher specialized educational institutions, and they could not enter university at all.
Urban reform	A system of city self-government was introduced, including the city Duma, council and electoral assembly.	The reform allowed the population of cities to develop their urban economy: build roads, infrastructure, credit institutions, marinas, etc. This made it possible to revive the commercial and industrial development of the country, as well as to introduce the population to civil life.	The urban reform was openly nationalistic and confessional in nature. Among the deputies of the city duma, the number of non-Christians should not exceed a third, and the mayor should not be a Jew.

Results of reforms

The “Great Reforms,” as they are commonly called in historical science, significantly modernized and modernized the Russian Empire. Class and property inequality between different strata of the population was significantly smoothed out, although it persisted until October revolution. The level of education of the population, including the lower classes, has noticeably increased.

At the same time, clashes intensified between the “enlightened bureaucrats” who developed and carried out reforms, and the aristocratic nobility, who wanted to preserve the old order and their influence in the country. Because of this, Alexander II was forced to maneuver, removing “enlightened bureaucrats” from affairs and reappointing them to their posts if necessary.

The importance of reforms

The “Great Reforms” had a double meaning, which was originally planned by the tsarist government. On the one hand, the expansion of the rights and freedoms of citizens has improved the social situation in the country; the widespread dissemination of education had a positive impact on the modernization of the Russian economy and contributed to the development of science; military reform made it possible to replace the old, expensive and ineffective army with a more modern one that fully meets its main tasks and causes minimal harm to the personality of a serviceman in peacetime. The “Great Reforms” contributed to the disintegration of the remnants of the feudal system and the development of capitalism in Russia.

On the other hand, liberal reforms strengthened the strength and authority of the autocratic government and made it possible to combat the spread of radical revolutionary ideas. It just so happened that the most loyal supporters of unlimited tsarist power were precisely the liberal “enlightened bureaucrats”, and not the arrogant aristocratic elite. Education had a special role: young people had to be taught to think thoroughly in order to prevent superficial radical views from forming in their minds.

An important place in the history of Russia is occupied by the reforms carried out during the reign of Alexander II. Having ascended the throne in 1855, he inherited from the previous reign a country mired in the Crimean War, a collapsed economy and corruption that was corroding all branches of government. To get out of such a difficult situation, the most decisive measures were required, which were the reforms he carried out.

Reasons that prompted the abolition of serfdom

The main reason for the peasant reform of Alexander II was the need to take urgent measures caused by the crisis of the serf system that had matured by that time and the increasing frequency of peasant unrest. The mass protests took on particular urgency after the end of the Crimean War (1853 ─ 1856), since the peasants, who responded to the government’s call to create militias, expected to receive freedom for this and were deceived in their expectations.

The following data are very indicative: if in 1856 66 peasant revolts were registered throughout the country, then after 3 years their number increased to 797. In addition, two more aspects played a significant role in realizing the need for such a reform, which could not but be taken care of Russian emperor, ─ this is state prestige, as well as the moral side of the problem.

Stages of peasant liberation

The date of the abolition of serfdom is considered to be February 19, 1861, that is, the day the king signed his famous Manifesto. A facsimile of it is given below. However, this great reform of Alexander II was carried out in 3 stages. In the year the Manifesto was published, only the so-called privately owned peasants, that is, those who belonged to the nobles, received freedom. They made up about 55% of all serfs. The remaining 45% of the forced people were owned by the king (appanage peasants) and the state. They were freed from serfdom in 1863 and 1866.

Document developed by the Secret Committee

The liberation of the peasants, like all liberal reforms of the 60s - 70s of the 19th century, was the reason for heated discussions among representatives of broad sections of Russian society. They took on particular urgency among the members of the Secret Committee created in 1857, whose responsibilities included working out all the details of the future document. Its meetings became an arena of controversy in which the opinions of supporters of progress and inveterate conservative serf-owners collided.

The result of the work of this committee, as well as a number of organizational measures, was a document on the basis of which serfdom in Russia was abolished forever, and the peasants were not only freed from legal dependence in relation to their former owners, but also received from them the land plots that were destined for them redeem.

New masters of the earth

According to the regulations adopted at that time, appropriate agreements had to be concluded between peasants and landowners on the purchase by former serfs of their allotted plots. Before the signing of this document, the peasants were considered “temporarily obligated,” that is, continuing to pay part of the previous dues, since, having emerged from personal dependence, they did not stop using the master’s land. To repay the land debt to the landowners, the peasants received a loan from the treasury with an installment plan for 49 years.

It should be noted that as a result of this most important of all liberal reforms of the 60s - 70s of the 19th century, peasants not only gained freedom from serfdom, but also became the owners of almost 50% of all arable land, which was then the main productive capital in Russia. All this gave a rapid impetus to improve the level of the national economy.

Public finance reform

The liberal reforms of Alexander II also affected financial system states. The need to introduce a number of changes to it was dictated by the transition of the state economy to a capitalist mode. Financial reform was carried out with the direct participation of the Minister of Finance, Count M. H. Reiter.

As part of the fight against corruption, a strict procedure for recording income and expenses was established in all departments Money, data about which were published and made available to the general public. Control over all government expenditures was entrusted to the Ministry of Finance, the head of which then reported to the sovereign. An important aspect of the reform was also innovations in the taxation system and the abolition of “wine tax farming”, which granted the right to sell alcoholic beverages only to a narrow circle of people and thereby reduced tax revenues to the treasury.

Reform in the field of public education

An important aspect of the liberal reforms of the 60s - 70s of the 19th century were the innovations introduced in the system of higher and secondary education. Thus, in 1863, the university charter was approved, which granted the broadest rights to the professorial corporation and protected it from the arbitrariness of officials.

Four years later, a classical education system was introduced in the country's humanitarian gymnasiums, and technical gymnasiums were transformed into real schools. In addition, a significant step was taken towards the development of women's education. The lower strata of the population were not forgotten either. In addition to the previously existing parochial schools, thousands of elementary secular schools appeared during the reign of Alexander II.

Zemstvo reform

The Russian emperor also paid considerable attention to issues of local self-government. According to the law he adopted, all landowners and private entrepreneurs whose property met the established qualifications, as well as peasant communities, were given the right to elect their representatives to district zemstvo assemblies for a period of 3 years.

Since the deputies, or “vowels” as they were called, met only periodically, a district zemstvo government was created for permanent work, the members of which were especially trusted persons from among the deputies. Zemstvos, established not only within counties, but also within entire provinces, dealt with issues of public education, food, health care, veterinary medicine and road maintenance.

In November 1864, a new Judicial Charter was published, which radically changed the order of all legal proceedings. In contrast to the norms established under Catherine II, when sessions took place behind closed doors in the absence of not only spectators, but even plaintiffs and defendants, during the time of Alexander II the court became public.

The verdict rendered by jurors appointed from ordinary citizens was of decisive importance in determining the guilt of the defendants. In addition, the adversarial process between a lawyer and a prosecutor has become an important element of legal proceedings. The protection of judges from possible pressure was ensured by their administrative independence and irremovability.

It began in 1857 with the abolition of military settlements established by Alexander I in 1810. The system in which military service was combined with productive labor, mainly in agriculture, played a positive role at a certain stage, but by the middle of the century it had completely outlived its usefulness.

In addition, in 1874, a law was issued, developed by a commission under the leadership of Minister of War D. Milyutin, which abolished the previous recruitment drives and replaced them with annual conscription of young men who had reached the age of 21 into the army. However, even from their number, not all of them ended up in the army, but only the number that was needed by the state for this moment. Those taken into service spent 6 years in the army and another 9 were in the reserves.

The military reform also provided for an extensive list of benefits for conscripts, which extended to persons of various categories. They included, in particular, the only sons of their parents or the only grandchildren of their grandparents, breadwinners of families, as well as those who, in the absence of parents, had dependent young brothers or sisters, and many other young people.

City government reform

The story about the liberal reforms of the 60s ─ 70s of the 19th century would be incomplete without mentioning that, according to the law issued in 1870, the order of local self-government established in counties and provinces also extended to the cities of the Russian Empire. Their residents, who paid taxes on the land, trades or trades they owned, received the right to elect members to the city duma, which exercised control over the management of the city economy.

In turn, the Duma elected members of a permanent body, which was the city government and its leader - the mayor. It is important to note that the local administration did not have the opportunity to influence the decisions of the city duma, since it reported directly to the senate.

Results of reform

All those measures of state transformation discussed in the article made it possible to solve a number of pressing social and economic problems by that time. They created the necessary conditions for the development of a capitalist economy in Russia and its transformation into a rule of law state.

Unfortunately, during his lifetime the great reformer did not receive the gratitude of his compatriots. Retrogrades condemned him for being too liberal, and liberals reproached him for not being radical enough. Revolutionaries and terrorists of all stripes staged a real hunt for him, organizing 6 assassination attempts. As a result, on March 1 (13), 1881, Alexander II was killed by a bomb thrown at his carriage by Narodnaya Volya member Ignatius Grinevitsky.

According to researchers, some of his reforms were not completed both due to objective reasons and as a result of the indecisiveness of the emperor himself. When Alexander III came to power in 1881, the counter-reforms he launched significantly slowed down the progress that had taken place during the previous reign.

World historical theory

Materialist historians(I.A. Fedosov and others) define the period of abolition of serfdom as a sharp transition from a feudal socio-economic formation to a capitalist one. They believe that the abolition of serfdom in Russia late, and the reforms that followed it were carried out slowly and incompletely. Half-heartedness in carrying out reforms caused indignation among the advanced part of society- the intelligentsia, which then resulted in terror against the tsar. Marxist revolutionaries believed that the country was “led” down the wrong path of development- “slowly cutting off the rotting parts”, but it was necessary to “lead” along the path of a radical solution to problems - carrying out the confiscation and nationalization of landowners’ lands, the destruction of the autocracy, etc.

Liberal historians contemporaries of the events, V.O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911), S.F. Platonov (1860-1933) and others, welcomed both the abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms. Defeat in the Crimean War, they believed, revealed Russia's technical lag behind attack and undermined the country's international prestige.

Later liberal historians ( I. N. Ionov, R. Pipes, etc.) began to note that in in the middle of the nineteenth century, serfdom reached its highest point of economic efficiency. The reasons for the abolition of serfdom are political. Russia's defeat in the Crimean War dispelled the myth of the military power of the Empire, caused irritation in society and a threat to the stability of the country. The interpretation focuses on the cost of reform. Thus, the people were not historically prepared for drastic socio-economic changes and “painfully” accepted the changes in their lives. The government did not have the right to abolish serfdom and carry out reforms without comprehensive socio-moral training of the entire people, especially nobles and peasants. According to liberals, the centuries-old way of Russian life cannot be changed by force.

ON THE. Nekrasov in his poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'” writes:

The great chain has broken,

tore and hit:

one end on the master,

others - man!...

Historians of the technological direction (V. A. Krasilshchikov, S. A. Nefedov, etc.) believe that the abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms are due to the stage of Russia’s modernization transition from a traditional (agrarian) society to an industrial one. The transition from traditional to industrial society in Russia was carried out by the state during the period of influence from the 17th-18th centuries. European cultural and technological circle (modernization - Westernization) and took the form of Europeanization, that is, a conscious change in traditional national forms according to the European model.

“Machine progress in Western Europe, tsarism “forced” actively to impose industrial order. And this determined the specifics of modernization in Russia. The Russian state, selectively borrowing technical and organizational elements from the West, simultaneously preserved traditional structures. As a result, the country has developed”(industrial - agrarian), which later led to social shocks.

Industrial society, introduced by the state at the expense of the peasants, came into sharp conflict with all the fundamental conditions of Russian life and should inevitably give rise to protest both against the autocracy, which did not give the desired freedom to the peasant, and against the private owner, a figure previously alien to Russian life. The industrial workers who appeared in Russia as a result of industrial development inherited the hatred of the entire Russian peasantry with its centuries-old communal psychology towards private property.

Tsarism interpreted as a regime forced to industrialize but unable to cope with its consequences.

Local historical theory.

The theory is represented by the works of Slavophiles and Narodniks. Historians believed that Russia, unlike Western countries, follows its own special path of development. They justified the possibility in Russia of a non-capitalist path of development to socialism through the peasant community.

Reforms of Alexander II

Land reform. The main question in Russia during the 18th-19th centuries there was a land-peasant system. Catherine II raised this question in the work of the Free Economic Society, which reviewed several dozen programs for the abolition of serfdom by both Russian and foreign authors. Alexander I issued a decree “On Free Plowmen,” which allowed landowners to free their peasants from serfdom along with the land for a ransom. Nicholas I During the years of his reign, he created 11 secret committees on the peasant issue, whose task was to abolish serfdom and resolve the land issue in Russia.

In 1857, by decree of Alexander II started to work secret committee on the peasant question, main task which was the abolition of serfdom with the mandatory allocation of land to peasants. Then such committees were created in the provinces. As a result of their work (and the wishes and orders of both landowners and peasants were taken into account) there was a reform has been developed to abolish serfdom for all regions of the country, taking into account local specifics. For different areas there were the maximum and minimum values ​​of the allotment transferred to the peasant are determined.

Emperor On February 19, 1861, he signed a number of laws. Was here Manifesto and Regulations on the granting of freedom to the peasants us, documents on the entry into force of the Regulations, on the management of rural communities, etc.

Abolition of serfdom was not a one-time event. First, landowner peasants were freed, then appanage peasants and those assigned to factories. Peasants received personal freedom, but the land remained the property of the landowners, and while plots were allocated, peasants were in the position of “temporarily obligated” bore duties in favor of the landowners, which were essentially no different from the previous serfs. The plots transferred to the peasants were on average 1/5 smaller than those they had previously cultivated. To these lands buyout agreements were concluded, after this, the “temporarily obligated” state ceased, the treasury paid for the land with the landowners, the peasants - with the treasury for 49 years at the rate of 6% per annum (redemption payments).

Use of land and relationships with authorities were built through the community. It was preserved as a guarantor of peasant payments. The peasants were attached to society (the world).

As a result of reforms serfdom was abolished- that “obvious and palpable evil”, which in Europe was directly called “ Russian slavery." However, the land problem was not solved, since the peasants, when dividing the land, were forced to give the landowners a fifth of their plots.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, the first Russian revolution broke out in Russia, a peasant revolution largely in terms of the composition of the driving forces and the tasks that faced it. This is what made P.A. Stolypin to implement land reform, allowing peasants to leave the community. The essence of the reform was to resolve the land issue, but not through the confiscation of land from the landowners, as the peasants demanded, but through the redistribution of the land of the peasants themselves.

Liberal reforms of the 60-70s

Zemstvo and city reforms. The principle of 1864. zemstvo reform consisted of election and classlessness. In provinces and districts Central Russia and parts of Ukraine zemstvos were established as local government bodies. Elections to zemstvo assemblies were carried out on the basis of property, age, education and a number of other qualifications. Women and employees were deprived of the right to participate in elections. This gave an advantage to the wealthiest segments of the population. The meetings elected zemstvo councils. Zemstvos were in charge affairs of local importance, promoted entrepreneurship, education, healthcare - carried out work for which the state did not have the funds.

Conducted in 1870 urban reform in character she was close to the zemstvo. In major cities city ​​councils were established on the basis of all-estate elections. However, elections were held on a licensing basis, and, for example, in Moscow only 4% of the adult population participated in them. The city councils and the mayor decided internal self-government issues, education and health care. For control for zemstvo and city activities it was created presence on city affairs.

Judicial reform. New judicial statutes were approved on November 20, 1864. The judicial power was separated from the executive and legislative. A classless and public court was introduced, and the principle of irremovability of judges was established. Two types of court were introduced - general (crown) and magistrate. The general court was in charge of criminal cases. The trial became open, although in a number of cases cases were heard behind closed doors. An adversarial court was established, the positions of investigators were introduced, and the legal profession was established. The question of the defendant’s guilt was decided by 12 jurors. The most important principle of the reform was the recognition of the equality of all subjects of the empire before the law.

For the analysis of civil cases it was introduced Institute of Magistrates. Appeal the authority for the courts was court cases You. The position was introduced notary. Since 1872, major political cases were considered in Special presence of the governing Senate, which simultaneously became the highest court of cassation.

Military reform. After his appointment in 1861, D.A. Milyutin, Minister of War, begins the reorganization of the management of the armed forces. In 1864, 15 military districts were formed, subordinate directly to the Minister of War. In 1867, a military judicial charter was adopted. In 1874, after a long discussion, the tsar approved the Charter on universal military service. A flexible recruitment system was introduced. Recruitment sets were cancelled, and the entire male population over the age of 21 was subject to conscription. The service life was reduced in the army to 6 years, in the navy to 7 years. Clergymen, members of a number of religious sects, the peoples of Kazakhstan and Central Asia, as well as some peoples of the Caucasus and the Far North were not subject to conscription into the army. The only son, the only breadwinner in the family, was exempt from service. In peacetime, the need for soldiers was significantly less than the number of conscripts, so everyone fit for service, with the exception of those who received benefits, drew lots. For those who graduated from primary school, service was reduced to 3 years, for those who graduated from high school - to 1.5 years, and from university or institute - to 6 months.

Financial reform. In 1860 there was State Bank established, happened abolition of the tax-farm 2 system, which was replaced by excise taxes 3(1863). Since 1862 The only responsible manager of budget revenues and expenses was the Minister of Finance; the budget became public. Was done attempt at monetary reform(free exchange of credit notes for gold and silver at the established rate).

Educational reforms. “Regulations on primary public schools” dated June 14, 1864 eliminated the state-church monopoly on education. Now both public institutions and private ones were allowed to open and maintain primary schools persons under control by district and provincial school councils and inspectors. The charter of the secondary school introduced the principle of equality of all classes and religions y, but entered tuition fees.

Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real new In classical gymnasiums, mainly humanities were taught, in real ones - natural subjects. After the resignation of the Minister of Public Education A.V. Golovnin (in 1861 D.A. Tolstoy was appointed instead) was accepted new gymnasium regulations, retaining only classical gymnasiums, real gymnasiums were replaced by real schools. Along with male secondary education a system of women's gymnasiums appeared.

University Us tav (1863) provided universities had broad autonomy, elections of rectors and professors were introduced. Management of the educational institution was transferred to the Council of the Trade Union Essor, to whom the students were subordinate. Were universities were opened in Odessa and Tomsk, higher courses for women in St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Moscow, Kazan.

As a result of the publication of a number of laws in Russia there was a coherent education system was created, which included primary, secondary and higher educational institutions.

Censorship reform. In May 1862 censorship reform began, were introduced "temporary rules”, which in 1865 were replaced by a new censorship charter. According to the new charter, preliminary censorship was abolished for books of 10 or more printed pages (240 pages); editors and publishers could only be held accountable in court. With special permissions and upon payment of a deposit of several thousand rubles, periodicals were also exempt from censorship, but they could be suspended administratively. Only government and scientific publications, as well as literature translated from a foreign language, could be published without censorship.

The preparation and implementation of reforms were an important factor in the socio-economic development of the country. Administratively, the reforms were quite well prepared, but public opinion did not always keep up with the ideas of the reformer tsar. The diversity and speed of transformations gave rise to a feeling of uncertainty and confusion in thoughts. People lost their bearings, organizations professing extremist, sectarian principles appeared.

For economy Post-reform Russia is characterized by rapid development commodity-money relations. Celebrated growth of sown areas and agricultural production, but performance Agriculture remained low. Harvests and food consumption (except bread) were 2-4 times lower than in Western Europe. At the same time in the 80s. compared to the 50s. The average annual grain harvest increased by 38%, and its export increased by 4.6 times.

The development of commodity-money relations led to property differentiation in the countryside, middle peasant farms went bankrupt, and the number of poor people grew. On the other side, strong kulak farms appeared, some of which used agricultural machines. All this was part of the plans of the reformers. But completely unexpectedly for them in the country the traditionally hostile attitude towards trade has intensified That is, to all new forms of activity: to a kulak, a merchant, a buyer - to a successful entrepreneur.

In Russia large industry was created and developed as a state-owned. The government's main concern after the failures of the Crimean War was enterprises producing military equipment. Russia's military budget in general terms was inferior to that of England, France, and Germany, but in the Russian budget it had a greater weight. Particular attention was paid to development of heavy industry and transport. It was in these areas that the government directed funds, both Russian and foreign.

The growth of entrepreneurship was controlled by the state based on the issuance of special orders, That's why the big bourgeoisie was closely associated with the state. Fast the number of industrial workers increased, however, many workers retained economic and psychological ties to the village; they carried within them the charge of discontent of the poor who had lost their land and were forced to seek food in the city.

The reforms laid the foundation new credit system. For 1866-1875 was 359 joint-stock commercial banks, mutual credit societies and other financial institutions were created. Since 1866 they began to actively participate in their work largest European banks. As a result government regulation foreign loans and investments went mainly to railway construction. Railways ensured the expansion of the economic market across the vast expanses of Russia; they were also important for the rapid transfer of military units.

In the second half of the 19th century, the political situation in the country changed several times.

During the period of preparation of the reforms, from 1855 to 1861, the government retained the initiative of action and attracted all supporters of the reforms - from the highest bureaucracy to the democrats. Subsequently, difficulties in carrying out reforms aggravated the internal political situation in the country. The government’s struggle with opponents “from the left” became brutal: the suppression of peasant uprisings, the arrests of liberals, the defeat of the Polish uprising. The role of the III Security (gendarmerie) department has strengthened.

IN 1860s a radical movement entered the political arena - populists. The common intelligentsia, relying on revolutionary democratic ideas and nihilism DI. Pisareva, created theory of revolutionary populism. The populists believed in the possibility of achieving socialism, bypassing capitalism, through the liberation of the peasant community - the rural "world". "Rebel" M.A. Bakunin predicted a peasant revolution, the fuse of which was to be lit by the revolutionary intelligentsia. P.N. Tkachev was the theorist of a coup d'etat, after which the intelligentsia, having carried out the necessary transformations, would liberate the community. P.L. Lavrov substantiated the idea of ​​thoroughly preparing peasants for the revolutionary struggle. IN 1874 began a mass “going to the people”", but the agitation of the populists failed to ignite the flame of the peasant uprising.

In 1876 it arose organization "Land and Freedom"", which in 1879 split into two groups.

Group " Black redistribution" led by G.V. Plekhanov paid primary attention to propaganda;

« People's Will" headed by A.I. Zhelyabov, N.A. Morozov, S.L. Perovskaya in highlighted political struggle. The main means of struggle, according to the “People’s Will”, was individual terror, a regicide that was supposed to serve as a signal for a popular uprising. In 1879-1881 Narodnaya Volya held a series assassination attempts on Alexander II.

In a situation of acute political confrontation, the authorities took the path of self-defense. On February 12, 1880 it was created “The Supreme Administrative Commission for the Protection of State Order and Public Peace"led by M.P. Loris-Melikov. Having received unlimited rights, Loris-Melikov achieved a suspension of the terrorist activities of the revolutionaries and some stabilization of the situation. In April 1880 the commission was liquidated; Loris-Melikov was appointed Minister of Internal Affairs and began to prepare the completion of the “great work of state reforms”. The development of draft laws for the final reform laws was entrusted to the “people” - temporary preparatory commissions with broad representation of zemstvos and cities.

On February 5, 1881, the presented bill was approved by Emperor Alexander II. " Loris-Melikov Constitution"provided for the election of "representatives from public institutions..." to the highest bodies of state power. In the morning March 1, 1881 The emperor appointed a meeting of the Council of Ministers to approve the bill; literally in a few hours Alexander II was killed members of the People's Will organization.

New Emperor Alexander III On March 8, 1881, he held a meeting of the Council of Ministers to discuss the Loris-Melikov project. At the meeting, the Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod, K.P., sharply criticized the “constitution.” Pobedonostsev and the head of the State Council S.G. Stroganov. Loris-Melikov's resignation soon followed.

IN May 1883 Alexander III proclaimed a course called in historical materialist literature “ counter-reforms», and in the liberal-historical - “adjustment of reforms”. He expressed himself as follows.

In 1889, to strengthen supervision over the peasants, the positions of zemstvo chiefs with broad rights were introduced. They were appointed from local noble landowners. Clerks and small traders, as well as other low-income strata of the city, lost their right to vote. Judicial reform has undergone changes. In the new regulations on zemstvos of 1890, class and noble representation was strengthened. In 1882-1884. Many publications were closed, and the autonomy of universities was abolished. Primary schools were transferred to the church department - the Synod.

These events showed the idea of ​​"official nationality""from the time of Nicholas I - slogan " Orthodoxy. Autocracy. Spirit of Humility"was in tune with the slogans of a bygone era. New official ideologists K.P. Pobedonostsev (Chief Prosecutor of the Synod), M.N. Katkov (editor of the Moskovskie Vedomosti), Prince V. Meshchersky (publisher of the newspaper Citizen) omitted the word “people” from the old formula “Orthodoxy, autocracy and the people” as “dangerous”; They preached the humility of his spirit before the autocracy and the church. On practice new policy resulted in an attempt to strengthen the state by relying on the noble class traditionally loyal to the throne. Administrative measures were reinforced economic support for landowners.

Description of the presentation Liberal reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century on slides

Topic study plan 1. Reasons for the reforms of the 60s and 70s. XIX century 2. Local government reforms. a) Zemstvo reform b) City reform 3. Judicial reform. 4. Reforms of the education system. a) School reform. b) University reform 5. Military reform.

Reforms of Alexander II (1855 - 1881) Peasant (1861) Zemstvo (1864) City (1870) Judicial (1864) Military (1874) In the field of education (1863 -1864)

*Historians of the 19th – early 20th centuries. these reforms were assessed as great (K. D. Kavelin, V. O. Klyuchevsky, G. A. Dzhanshiev). * Soviet historians considered them unfinished and half-hearted (M. N. Pokrovsky, N. M. Druzhinina, V. P. Volobuev).

Name Contents of the reform Their significance Their shortcomings Peasant (1861) Zemstvo (1864) City (1870) Judicial (1864) Military (1874) In the field of education (1863 -1864)

6 Peasant reform: Manifesto and Regulations February 19, 1861 Results of the peasant reform Opened the way for the development of bourgeois relations in Russia Was incomplete in nature, gave rise to social antagonisms (contradictions) “Will” without land

Reforms Their significance Their shortcomings Peasant aya (1861) A turning point, the line between feudalism and capitalism. It created the conditions for the establishment of the capitalist system as the dominant one. Preserved the remnants of serfdom; the peasants did not receive full ownership of the land, had to pay a ransom, and lost part of the land (cuts).

Local government reform In 1864, the “Regulations on Zemstvo Institutions” were introduced. Bodies of local self-government - zemstvos - were created in districts and provinces.

9 Zemskaya reform (Zemskaya reform (1864). “Regulations on provincial governors”). “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” and district zemstvo institutions” Contents of the reform Creation of provincial and district zemstvos - elected bodies of local self-government in rural areas Functions of zemstvos Maintenance of local schools, hospitals; construction of local roads; organization of agricultural statistics, etc.

11 Zemskaya reform (Zemskaya reform (1864).). “Regulations on provincial “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” and district zemstvo institutions” Structure of zemstvo institutions Zemstvo government executive agency and was elected for 3 years by the Zemstvo Assembly, consisting of vowels (vowels are elected members of zemstvo assemblies and city dumas), the administrative body was elected by the population on a census basis based on class, and met annually

Zemstvo reform In the zemstvo, including in its permanent bodies (governments), representatives of all classes worked together. But the leading role was still played by the nobles, who looked down on the “men’s” vowels. And peasants often treated participation in the work of the zemstvo as a duty and elected arrears to the council. Zemstvo Assembly in the province. Engraving based on a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky.

Curiae are the categories into which voters were divided according to property and social characteristics in pre-revolutionary Russia during elections.

Zemstvo reform 1 member (deputy) for the landowner and peasant curiae was elected from every 3 thousand peasant plots. According to the city curia - from the owners of property equal in value to the same amount of land. How many peasant votes were equal to the vote of a landowner with 800 dessiatines? , if the shower allotment was 4 dessiatines. ? In this case, 1 vote of the landowner = 200 votes of the peasants. Why, when creating zemstvo bodies, was not equal suffrage ensured for peasants, townspeople and landowners? Because in this case, the educated minority would “drown” in the illiterate dark peasant masses. ?

Zemstvo reform Zemstvo assemblies met once a year: district - for 10 days, provincial - for 20 days. Class composition of zemstvo assemblies? Why was the share of peasants noticeably lower among provincial councilors than among district councilors? Nobles Merchants Peasants Other District zemstvo 41, 7 10, 4 38, 4 9, 5 Provincial zemstvo 74, 2 10, 9 10, 6 4, 3 The peasants were not ready to engage in provincial affairs that were far from their daily needs. And getting to the provincial town was far and expensive.

Zemstvo reform Zemstvo assembly in the province. Engraving based on a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky. Zemstvos received the right to invite specialists in certain sectors of the economy to work - teachers, doctors, agronomists - zemstvo employees Zemstvos were introduced at the level of counties and provinces Zemstvos decide not only local economic affairs, but are also actively involved in the political struggle

Your comments. Zemstvos. The Moscow nobleman Kireev wrote about zemstvos: “We, the nobles, are vowels; merchants, townspeople, clergy are willing, peasants are mute.” Explain what the author wanted to say?

Zemstvo reform Zemstvos dealt exclusively with economic issues: building roads, fighting fires, agronomic assistance to peasants, creating food reserves in case of crop failure, maintaining schools and hospitals. For this purpose zemstvo taxes were collected. Zemstvo Assembly in the province. Engraving based on a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky. 1865 ? What groups are the zemstvo vowels divided into in K. Trutovsky’s drawing?

Thanks to zemstvo doctors, rural residents received qualified medical care for the first time. The zemstvo doctor was a generalist: therapist, surgeon, dentist, obstetrician. Sometimes operations had to be done in a peasant hut. Off-road in the Tver province. Zemstvo doctor. Hood. I. I. Tvorozhnikov.

Zemstvo reform Teachers played a special role among zemstvo employees. What do you think this role was? The zemstvo teacher not only taught children arithmetic and literacy, but was often the only literate person in the village. The teacher's arrival in the village. Hood. A. Stepanov. ? Thanks to this, the teacher became a bearer of knowledge and new ideas for the peasants. It was among the zemstvo teachers that there were especially many liberal and democratically minded people.

Zemstvo reform In 1865–1880. in Russia there were 12 thousand rural zemstvo schools, and in 1913 - 28 thousand. Zemstvo teachers taught over 2 million peasant children, including girls, to read and write. However, initial training never became compulsory. The training programs were developed by the Ministry of Education. Class at the zemstvo school in the Penza province. 1890s ? What, judging by the photograph, distinguished a zemstvo school from a state or parish school?

23 Zemskaya reform (Zemskaya reform (1864).). “Regulations on provincial “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” and district zemstvo institutions” Significance contributed to the development of education, health care, local improvement; became centers of the liberal social movement; restrictions were initially introduced in 35 provinces (by 1914 they operated in 43 out of 78 provinces); volost zemstvos were not created; they operated under the control of the administration (governors and the Ministry of Internal Affairs)

Zemstvo (1864) The most energetic, democratic intelligentsia grouped around the zemstvos. The activities were aimed at improving the situation of the masses. Class elections; the range of issues resolved by zemstvos is limited. Reforms Their significance Their disadvantages

Urban reform began to be prepared in 1862, but due to the assassination attempt on Alexander II, its implementation was delayed. The city regulations were adopted in 1870. The City Duma remained the highest body of city government. Elections were held in three curiae. Curias were formed on the basis of property qualifications. A list of voters was compiled in descending order of the amount of city taxes they paid. Each curia paid 1/3 of the taxes. The first curia was the richest and smallest in number, the third was the poorest and most numerous. ? What do you think: were city elections held on an all-estate or non-estate basis?

Urban reform City self-government: Voters of the 1st curia Voters of the 2nd curia Voters of the 3rd curia. City Duma (administrative body) City government (executive body) elects the mayor

Urban reform The head of city government was the elected mayor. IN major cities The city head was usually chosen from a nobleman or a wealthy guild merchant. Like zemstvos, city dumas and councils were in charge exclusively of local amenities: paving and lighting streets, maintaining hospitals, almshouses, orphanages and city schools, taking care of trade and industry, organizing water supply and urban transport. Samara mayor P.V. Alabin.

28 City Reform of 1870 – – “City Regulations” “City Regulations” Essence Creation in cities of bodies similar to zemstvos in function and structure The city mayor was in charge The city government was elected The City Duma, consisting of vowels, was elected by the population on a census-free basis

Gorodskaya (1870) Contributed to the involvement of broad sections of the population in governance, which served as a prerequisite for the formation of civil society and the rule of law in Russia. The activities of city government were controlled by the state. Reforms Their significance Their disadvantages

Judicial reform - 1864 Zemstvo Assembly in the province. Engraving based on a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky. Principles of legal proceedings Unclassified - the court's decision does not depend on the class of the accused Elected - magistrate and jury Publicity - the public could be present at court hearings, the press could report on the proceedings trial Independence – the judges could not be influenced by the administration Adversarial – participation in the trial of the prosecutor (prosecution) and lawyer (defense)

33 Judicial reform 1864 The judge is appointed by the Ministry of Justice (principle of irremovability of judges) Delivers a sentence in accordance with the law based on the verdict of the jury Basis of the reform Judicial Statutes introduction of jury trials

34 Judicial reform of 1864 Jurors are selected from representatives of all classes (!) on the basis of property qualifications 12 people Make a verdict (decision) on the guilt, its degree or innocence of the defendant

Judicial reform Judges received high salaries. The decision on the guilt of the accused was made by the jury after hearing witnesses and debates between the prosecutor and lawyer. A Russian citizen from 25 to 70 years of age (qualifications: property and residence) could become a juror. The court's decision could be appealed.

36 Judicial reform of 1864 Additional elements of judicial reform The following were created: special courts for military personnel special courts for clergy magistrates' courts for the consideration of minor civil and criminal offenses

37 Judicial reform of 1864 Structure of the judiciary in Russia The Senate is the highest judicial and cassation (cassation - appeal, protest against the verdict of a lower court) body Trial chambers courts for considering the most important cases and appeals (complaint, appeal for reconsideration of the case) against decisions of district courts District courts Judicial bodies of first instance. Considers complex criminal and civil cases Lawyer Prosecutor Magistrates' courts minor criminal and civil cases 12 jurors (qualification)

Judicial reform Minor offenses and civil litigation (claim amount up to 500 rubles) were dealt with by the magistrate court. The magistrate decided cases single-handedly and could impose a fine (up to 300 rubles), arrest for up to 3 months, or imprisonment for up to 1 year. Such a trial was simple, quick and cheap. World judge. Modern drawing.

Judicial reform The justice of the peace was elected by zemstvos or city dumas from among persons over 25 years of age, with at least secondary education, and at least three years of judicial experience. The magistrate had to own real estate worth 15 thousand rubles. It was possible to appeal the decisions of the magistrate at the district congress of magistrates. District Congress of Justices of the Peace of the Chelyabinsk District.

Judicial reform Public participation: 12 lay judges and jurors participated in the trial. The jury returned a verdict: “guilty”; “guilty, but deserves leniency”; "innocent" Based on the verdict, the judge pronounced a sentence. Modern drawing.

Judicial reform Jurors were elected by provincial zemstvo assemblies and city dumas on the basis of property qualifications, without taking into account class affiliation. Jurors. Drawing from the beginning of the 20th century. ? What can you tell about the composition of the jury based on this picture?

Judicial reform Adversarialism: In criminal proceedings, the prosecution was supported by the prosecutor, and the defense of the accused was carried out by a lawyer (sworn attorney). In a jury trial, where the verdict did not depend on professional lawyers, the role of the lawyer was enormous. The largest Russian lawyers: K. K. Arsenyev, N. P. Karabchevsky, A. F. Koni, F. N. Plevako, V. D. Spasovich. Fyodor Nikiforovich Plevako (1842–1908) speaks in court.

Judicial reform Glasnost: The public began to be allowed into court hearings. Trial reports were published in the press. Special court reporters appeared in newspapers. Lawyer V.D. Spasovich: “To a certain extent, we are knights of the living, free word, freer now than in the press, which the most zealous, fierce chairmen will not calm down, because by the time the chairman thinks about stopping you, the word has already galloped three miles away and his can't be returned." Portrait of lawyer Vladimir Danilovich Spasovich. Hood. I. E. Repin. 1891.

44 Judicial reform 1864 The significance of judicial reform The most advanced judicial system in the world at that time was created. A big step in the development of the principle of “separation of powers” ​​and democracy. The preservation of elements of bureaucratic arbitrariness: administrative punishment, etc. retained a number of relics of the past: special courts.

45 Military reform of the 60s - 70s. XIX-XIX centuries. Military reform of the 60s - 70s. XIX-XIX centuries The immediate impetus was the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War of 1853 -1856.

Directions of military reform The result is a mass army of a modern type

Military reform The first step of military reform was the abolition of military settlements in 1855. In 1861, on the initiative of the new Minister of War D. A. Milyutin, the service life was reduced from 25 years to 16 years. In 1863, corporal punishment was abolished in the army. In 1867, a new military-judicial charter was introduced, based on general principles judicial reform (transparency, competition). Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin (1816–1912), Minister of War in 1861–1881.

Military reform In 1863, a reform of military education was carried out: cadet corps were transformed into military gymnasiums. Military gymnasiums provided a wide range of general education(Russian and foreign languages, mathematics, physics, natural science, history). The training load doubled, but physical and general military training was reduced. Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin (1816–1912), Minister of War in 1861–1881.

1) The creation of military gymnasiums and schools for nobles, cadet schools for all classes, the opening of the Military Law Academy (1867) and the Naval Academy (1877)

According to the new regulations, the task was to teach troops only what is necessary in war (shooting, loose formation, engineering), the time for drill training, corporal punishment was prohibited.

Military reform What measure should have been the main one in the course of military reform? Cancellation of recruitment. What were the disadvantages of the recruitment system? The inability to quickly increase the army in wartime, the need to maintain a large army in peacetime. Recruitment was suitable for serfs, but not for free people. Non-commissioned officer of the Russian army. Hood. V. D. Polenov. Fragment. ? ?

Military reform What could replace the recruitment system? Universal conscription. The introduction of universal conscription in Russia with its vast territory required the development of the road network. Only in 1870 was a commission created to discuss this issue, and on January 1, 1874, a Manifesto was published on the replacement of conscription with universal military service. Sergeant of the Dragoon Regiment. 1886?

Military reform All men aged 21 were subject to conscription. The service period was 6 years in the army and 7 years in the navy. Only breadwinners and only sons were exempt from conscription. What principle was used as the basis for the military reform: all-class or classless? Formally, the reform was classless, but in fact the class system was largely preserved. "Lagged behind". Hood. P. O. Kovalevsky. Russian soldier of the 1870s. in full marching gear. ?

Military reform How were the remnants of class manifested in the Russian army after 1874? The fact is that the officer corps remained mainly noble, the rank and file - peasant. Portrait of Lieutenant of the Life Guards Hussar Regiment, Count G. Bobrinsky. Hood. K. E. Makovsky. Drummer of the Life Guards Pavlovsk Regiment. Hood. A. Detail. ?

Military reform During the military reform, benefits were established for recruits who had secondary or higher education. Those who graduated from high school served for 2 years, those who graduated from university served for 6 months. In addition to the shortened service life, they had the right to live not in the barracks, but in private apartments. Volunteer of the 6th Klyastitsky Hussar Regiment

Smooth-bore weapons were replaced by rifled ones, cast-iron guns were replaced by steel ones, the H. Berdan rifle (Berdanka) was adopted by the Russian army, and the construction of a steam fleet began.

Military reform In what ways do you think? social groups did the military reform cause dissatisfaction and what were its motives? The conservative nobility was unhappy that people from other classes had the opportunity to become officers. Some nobles were outraged that they could be drafted as soldiers along with the peasants. The merchants, who were previously not subject to conscription, were especially dissatisfied. Merchants even offered to take on the maintenance of disabled people if they were allowed to buy their way out of conscription. ?

59 Military reforms of the 60s - 70s. XIX-XIX centuries. Military reforms of the 60s - 70s. XIX-XIX centuries The most important element of the reform was the replacement of the recruitment system with universal military service. Compulsory military service for men of all classes from the age of 20 (6 years in the army, 7 years in the navy) with subsequent stay in the reserve. Benefits were provided for persons with higher and secondary education. education (the rights of those who volunteer), clergy and some other categories of the population were released. Significance: the creation of massive combat-ready armed forces; increasing the country's defense capability

The meaning of the reform: the creation of a mass army of a modern type, the authority of military service was raised, a blow to the class system. Disadvantages of the reform: miscalculations in the system of organizing and arming the troops. Military reform of 1874

62 Education reforms. Education reforms School reform of 1864 Formation of a new structure of primary and secondary education Public schools District 3 years of study Parish since 1884 parochial schools 3 years of study Gymnasiums 4 years of study Urban 6 years of study Primary education

School reform (Secondary education) Classical and real gymnasiums were intended for the children of nobles and merchants. “Charter of gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums” November 19, 1864 Pro-gymnasium. Duration of study 4 years Classical gymnasium 7-grade, duration of study 7 years Real gymnasium 7-grade Duration of study 7 years The curriculum of classical gymnasiums was dominated by ancient and foreign languages, ancient history, ancient literature. The curriculum of real gymnasiums was dominated by mathematics, physics and other technical subjects. We were preparing to enter the gymnasium. They were located in county towns.

School reform In 1872, the period of study in classical gymnasiums was increased to 8 years (the 7th grade became two-year), and from 1875 they officially became 8-grade. Real gymnasiums retained the 7-year course of study and in 1872 were transformed into real schools. If graduates of classical gymnasiums entered universities without exams, then realists had to take exams in ancient languages. Without exams, they entered only technical universities. What caused such restrictions for graduates of real schools? Children of nobles often studied in classical gymnasiums, while children of merchants and commoners studied in real ones. ?

The university reform was the first after the abolition of serfdom, which was caused by student unrest. The new university charter to replace the Nikolaev charter of 1835 was adopted on June 18, 1863. The initiator of the new charter was the Minister of Education A.V. Golovnin. Universities received autonomy. Councils of universities and faculties were created, which elected rector and deans, awarded academic titles, and distributed funds among departments and faculties. Andrei Vasilyevich Golovnin (1821 -1886), Minister of Education in 1861–1866.

University reform Universities had their own censorship and received foreign literature without customs inspection. Universities had their own courts and security; the police did not have access to university premises. Golovnin proposed creating student organizations and involving them in participation in university self-government, but the State Council rejected this proposal. Andrei Vasilyevich Golovnin (1821 -1886), Minister of Education in 1861–1866. ? Why was this proposal excluded from the university statutes?

Classic. Reform in the field of public education Changes in the education system University Charter 1863 School Charter 1864 Autonomy Gymnasiums Real Prepared for admission to the university Prepared for admission to higher technical educational institutions. A university council was created, which decided all internal issues. Election of the rector and teachers. Restrictions for students were lifted (their offenses were considered by the student court)

Women's education In the 60s and 70s. Women's higher education appeared in Russia. Women were not accepted into universities, but in 1869 the first Higher Women's Courses were opened. The most famous were the courses opened by V. I. Guerrier in Moscow (1872) and K. N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin in St. Petersburg (1878). Guerrier’s courses included only the department of literature and history. The Bestuzhev courses include mathematical and verbal history departments. 2/3 of the students studied mathematics. Student. Hood. N. A. Yaroshenko.

Reforms in the field of education (1863 -1864) The meaning of the reforms: expansion and improvement of education at all levels. Disadvantages of the reforms: inaccessibility of secondary and higher education for all segments of the population.

Judicial (1864) The most advanced judicial system in the world at that time. It retained a number of remnants: special courts. Military (1874) Creation of a mass army of a modern type, the authority of military service was raised, a blow to the class system. Miscalculations in the system of organization and armament of troops. In the field of education (1863 -186 4) Expansion and improvement of education at all levels. Inaccessibility of secondary and higher education for all segments of the population. Reforms Their significance Their disadvantages

71 Results and significance of the reforms Led to a significant acceleration of the country's development, brought Russia closer to the level of the leading powers of the world. Were incomplete and incomplete. In the 80s they were replaced by counter-reforms of Alexander III

The significance of the Zemstvo Assembly reforms in the province. Engraving based on a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky. The country's advancement along the path of capitalist development, along the path of transforming the feudal monarchy into a bourgeois monarchy and the development of democracy. The reforms were a step from the landowner state to the legal state. The reforms demonstrated that positive changes in society can be achieved not by revolutions, but by transformations from above, peacefully

Let's summarize: What is the historical significance of the reforms of the 60s and 70s? ? Thanks to the reforms of the 60s and 70s. many questions Everyday life were transferred from the jurisdiction of the bureaucracy to the jurisdiction of society represented by zemstvos and city dumas; the equality of Russian citizens before the law was established; The literacy level of the population has increased significantly; universities received a greater degree of freedom of scientific and educational activities; censorship for the central press and book publishing was relaxed; the army began to be built on the basis of classless universal military service, which corresponded to the principle of equality before the law and made it possible to create trained reserves. ?

The abolition of serfdom posed new serious problems for the authorities. For centuries, the serf system in Russia determined the organization of the management and judicial system, the principles of recruiting the army, etc. The collapse of this system dictated the need for further reforms.

Zemstvo and city reforms

The abolition of serfdom created many empty spaces in the previously existing system of local government, because this latter was closely connected with serfdom. Thus, before, each landowner on his estate was the personification of power for his peasants. Yes, and in the district and provincial government most of Since the time of Catherine II, positions have been filled by the choice of the nobility and from among its representatives. After the abolition of serfdom, this entire system collapsed. The local economy was already extremely neglected. There was practically no medical care in the village. Epidemics claimed thousands of lives. The peasants did not know basic hygiene rules. Public education could not get out of its infancy. Some landowners who maintained schools for their peasants closed them immediately after the abolition of serfdom. No one cared about the country roads. Thus, it was necessary to urgently find a way out of this intolerable situation, given that the state treasury was depleted and the government could not improve the local economy on its own. Therefore, it was decided to meet the liberal public halfway (especially from non-black earth provinces), which petitioned for the introduction of local all-class self-government.

These ideas were expressed by N.A. Milyutin in a note addressed to the emperor. Once approved by the latter, they became the guiding principles of the reform. These principles were expressed in the formula: give local government as much confidence as possible, as much independence as possible and as much unity as possible.

On January 1, 1864, the law on zemstvo self-government was approved. The zemstvo reform began, during which a system of local self-government bodies was created in Russia at two territorial levels - in the district and the province. The administrative bodies of the zemstvo were the district and provincial zemstvo assemblies, and the executive bodies were the district and provincial zemstvo councils. Elections of zemstvo bodies were held every three years. In each district, three electoral congresses (curia) were created for the election of members of the district zemstvo assembly. The first curia (private landowners) included persons, regardless of class, who had at least 200-800 dessiatines. land (land qualifications were different in different counties). The second (rural societies) - elected from volost assemblies. The third curia (city voters) included city property owners with a certain property qualification. Each of the congresses elected a certain equal number of vowels (for a period of three years). District zemstvo assemblies elected members of the provincial zemstvo. To carry out their tasks, zemstvos received the right to impose a special tax on the population.

As a rule, nobles predominated in zemstvo assemblies. Despite conflicts with liberal landowners, the autocracy considered the landed nobility its main support. Therefore, the chairmen of district assemblies automatically (ex officio) became the district leaders of the nobility, and the chairmen of provincial assemblies - the provincial leaders. Zemstvo was introduced only in 34 provinces European Russia. He was not in Siberia and the Arkhangelsk province, because... there were no landowners there. Zemstvos were not introduced in the Don Army Region, in the Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, where Cossack self-government existed.

The functions of zemstvos were quite diverse. They were in charge of the local economy (construction and maintenance of local roads, etc.), public education, medicine, and statistics. However, they could engage in all these matters only within the boundaries of their district or province. Zemstvo members had no right not only to solve any problems of a national nature, but even to raise them for discussion. Moreover, provincial zemstvos were forbidden to communicate with each other and coordinate their activities even on such issues as the fight against hunger, epidemics, and livestock deaths.

Milyutin did not insist on expanding the competence of zemstvos, but believed that in their field of activity they should enjoy complete autonomy and independence from local administrative authorities, subordinate only to the Senate, and that governors should only be given the right to oversee the legality of their actions.

The shortcomings of the zemstvo reform were obvious: the incompleteness of the structure of zemstvo bodies (the absence of a higher central body), the artificial creation of a numerical advantage for the landed nobility, and limited scope of activity. At the same time, this reform was of serious importance. The very fact of the emergence in Russia of a system of self-government, fundamentally different from the dominant bureaucratic system, was important. The election of zemstvo bodies and their relative independence from bureaucratic structures made it possible to count on the fact that these bodies, with all their shortcomings, would proceed from the interests of the local population and bring them real benefit. These hopes were generally justified. Soon after the creation of zemstvos, Russia was covered with a network of zemstvo schools and hospitals.

With the advent of the zemstvo, the balance of power in the province began to change. Previously, all affairs in the districts were carried out by government officials together with the landowners. Now that a network of schools has expanded. hospitals and statistical bureaus, the “third element” appeared, as zemstvo doctors, teachers, agronomists, and statisticians began to be called. Many representatives of the rural intelligentsia showed high examples of serving the people. The peasants trusted them, and the government listened to their advice. Government officials watched with alarm the growing influence of the “third element.”

As soon as they were born, zemstvos met with an extremely hostile attitude towards themselves from all government bodies - central and local, and soon lost a significant part of their already small powers, which led to the fact that many worthy figures of the zemstvo movement cooled towards it and left the zemstvo councils and meetings.

According to the law, zemstvos were purely economic organizations. But they soon began to play an important political role. In those years, the most enlightened and humane landowners usually entered the zemstvo service. They became members of zemstvo assemblies, members and chairmen of councils. They stood at the origins of the zemstvo liberal movement. And representatives of the “third element” gravitated towards left-wing, democratic, currents of social thought. There was hope in society for further steps in a radical restructuring of the Russian state system. Liberal leaders, who wholeheartedly welcomed the reform, consoled themselves with the dream of “crowning the building” - the creation of an all-Russian representative body on a zemstvo basis, which would be progress towards a constitutional monarchy. But the government took a completely different path. As it turned out later, in 1864 she gave the maximum self-government that she considered possible. Government policy towards zemstvos in the second half of the 1860s - 1870s. was aimed at depriving him of all independence. Governors received the right to refuse confirmation to office of any person elected by the zemstvo; even greater rights were given to them in relation to “employees” - zemstvo doctors, teachers, statisticians: at the slightest provocation they were not only expelled from the zemstvo, but also expelled outside the province. In addition, the governor became the censor of all printed publications zemstvos - reports, journals of meetings, statistical studies. The central and local authorities purposefully stifled any initiative of the zemstvos, fundamentally stopping any attempt at independent activity. When conflict situations arose, the government did not hesitate to dissolve zemstvo assemblies, exile their members and take other punitive measures.

As a result, instead of moving forward towards representative government, the authorities stubbornly moved backward, trying to include zemstvo bodies into the bureaucratic system. This constrained the activities of the zemstvos and undermined their authority. Nevertheless, the zemstvos managed to achieve serious success in their specific work, especially in the field of public education and medicine. But they were never destined to become full-fledged bodies of self-government and serve as the basis for the construction of a constitutional system.

On similar grounds, the City Regulations (a law on the reform of city government) were published in 1870. Issues of improvement (lighting, heating, water supply, cleaning, transport, construction of city passages, embankments, bridges, etc.), as well as the management of school, medical and charitable affairs, and care for the development of trade and industry were subject to the trusteeship of city councils and councils. The City Duma was charged with mandatory expenses for maintaining the fire department, police, prisons, and barracks (these expenses absorbed from 20 to 60% of the city budget). The city regulations eliminated the class principle in the formation of city self-government bodies, replacing it with a property qualification. Males who have reached 25 years of age participated in the elections to the city duma in three electoral congresses (curias) (small, medium and large taxpayers) with equal total amounts of payments of city taxes. Each curia elected 1/3 of the City Duma. Along with private individuals, departments, companies, monasteries, etc., who paid fees to the city budget, received the right to vote. Workers who did not pay taxes to the city did not participate in the elections. The number of dumas was established taking into account the population from 30 to 72 vowels, in Moscow - 180, in St. Petersburg - 250. The mayor, his comrade (deputy) and the council were elected by the duma. The mayor headed both the Duma and the Council, coordinating their activities. The body supervising compliance with the law in the activities of city government was the Provincial Presence for City Affairs (chaired by the governor).

Within their competence, City Dumas had relative independence and independence. They carried out a lot of work on the improvement and development of cities, but in the social movement they were not as noticeable as the zemstvos. This was explained by the long-standing political inertia of the merchant and business class.

Judicial reform

In 1864, a judicial reform was carried out, radically transforming the structure of the Russian court and the entire legal process. The old courts existed without any significant changes since the time of Catherine II, although the need for judicial reform was recognized even by Alexander I. The main defects of the old judicial system were estate (each estate had its own court and its own laws), complete subordination to the administration and the closed nature of the judicial process (which opened up unprecedented opportunities for abuse and lawlessness). The defendant was not always informed of all the grounds on which the charges brought against him were based. The verdict was made based on the totality of the system of formal evidence, and not on the internal conviction of the judge. The judges themselves often had not only no legal education, but none at all.

It was possible to take up the reform only after the abolition of serfdom, which forced the abandonment of the principle of class and the change of the conservative Minister of Justice, Count. V.N. Panina. The author of the judicial reform was a long-time supporter of changes in this area, the State Secretary of the State Council (one of the few who spoke in the State Council in 1861 for the approval of the peasant reform) Sergei Ivanovich Zarudny. In 1862, the emperor approved the main provisions of the judicial reform developed by him: 1) the absence of class of the court, 2) equality of all citizens before the law, 3) complete independence of the court from the administration (which was guaranteed by the irremovability of judges), 4) careful selection of judicial personnel and their sufficient number material support.

The old class courts were abolished. Instead, a world court and a crown court were created - two systems independent from each other, which were united only by subordination to one supreme judicial body - the Senate. A magistrate's court with a simplified procedure was introduced in counties to deal with cases of minor offenses and civil cases with a minor claim (for the first time this category of cases was separated from the general mass). More serious cases were dealt with in the crown court, which had two instances: the district court and the trial chamber. In case of violation of the legal order of judicial proceedings, the decisions of these bodies could be appealed to the Senate.

From the old courts, which conducted business in a purely bureaucratic manner, the new ones differed primarily in that they were public, i.e. open to the public and press. In addition, the judicial procedure was based on an adversarial process, during which the charge was formulated, substantiated and supported by the prosecutor, and the interests of the defendant were defended by a lawyer from among the sworn lawyers. The prosecutor and lawyer had to find out all the circumstances of the case, questioning witnesses, analyzing physical evidence, etc. After hearing the judicial debate, the jury (12 people), chosen by lot from representatives of all classes, made their verdict on the case (“guilty”, “innocent”, “guilty, but deserves leniency”). Based on the verdict, the crown court (represented by the chairman and two members of the court) passed a sentence. Only in case of an obvious violation of procedural norms (failure to hear one of the parties by the court, failure to call witnesses, etc.) could the parties, by filing a cassation appeal, transfer the case (civil - from the judicial chamber, criminal - from the district court) to the Senate, which, in the event confirmation of violations, transferred the case without consideration to another court, or to the same court, but with a different composition. A feature of the reform was that both the investigators who prepared the case for trial and the judges who led the entire judicial procedure, although appointed by the government, were irremovable for the entire term of their powers. In other words, as a result of the reform it was supposed to create a court that was as independent as possible and protect it from outside influences, primarily from pressure from the administration. At the same time, cases of state and some judicial crimes, as well as cases of the press, were removed from the jurisdiction of the jury.

The World Court, whose task was to provide the Russian people with a “quick, just and merciful” court, consisted of one person. The justice of the peace was elected by zemstvo assemblies or city dumas for three years. The government could not by its own power remove him from office (as well as the judges of the district crown court). The task of the magistrate's court was to reconcile the guilty, and if the parties were unwilling, the judge was given considerable scope in imposing punishment - depending not on any external formal data, but on his inner conviction. The introduction of magistrates' courts significantly relieved the crown courts of the mass of small cases.

Yet the judicial reform of 1864 remained unfinished. To resolve conflicts among the peasantry, the estate volost court was retained. This was partly explained by the fact that peasant legal concepts were very different from general civil ones. A magistrate with a “Code of Laws” would often be powerless to judge the peasants. The volost court, consisting of peasants, judged on the basis of the customs existing in the area. But he was too susceptible to influence from the wealthy upper classes of the village and all kinds of authorities. The volost court and the magistrate had the right to impose corporal punishment. This shameful phenomenon existed in Russia until 1904. There was a separate church court for the clergy (for specifically church matters).

In addition, soon after the start of the implementation of judicial reform, largely under the influence of the unprecedented scale of terrorism, the government began to subordinate the courts to the dominant bureaucratic system. In the second half of the 1860s - 1870s, the publicity of court hearings and their coverage in the press was significantly limited; The dependence of judicial officials on the local administration increased: they were ordered to unquestioningly “obey the legal requirements” of the provincial authorities. The principle of irremovability was also undermined: instead of investigators, “acting” investigators were increasingly appointed, to whom the principle of irremovability did not apply. Innovations relating to political cases were especially characteristic : the investigation in these cases began to be conducted not by investigators, but by gendarmes; legal proceedings were carried out not by jury courts, but by the Special Presence of the Governing Senate created specifically for this purpose. Since the late 1870s, a significant part of political cases began to be considered by military courts.

And yet, one can without hesitation admit that judicial reform was the most radical and consistent of all the Great Reforms of the 1860s.

Military reforms

In 1861, General Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin was appointed Minister of War. Taking into account the lessons of the Crimean War, he spent the 1860s - I half. 1870s a number of military reforms. One of the main objectives of military reforms was to reduce the size of the army in peacetime and create the opportunity for a significant increase in it in wartime. This was achieved by reducing the non-combatant element (non-combatant, local and auxiliary troops) and introducing in 1874 (under the influence of the successful actions of the Prussian army in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 - 1871) universal conscription, replacing the pre-reform conscription. Military service extended to the entire male population, aged 21-40, without distinction of class. For ground forces, a 6-year period of active service and 9 years in reserve was established; for the navy - 7 years of active service and 3 years in reserve. Then those liable for military service were transferred as warriors to the State Militia, where those exempt from conscription were also enrolled. In peacetime, no more than 25 - 30% of the total was taken into active service. total number conscripts. A significant part of conscripts were exempted from service due to family benefits (the only son of their parents, the only breadwinner in the family, etc.), due to physical unfitness, or due to their occupation (doctors, veterinarians, pharmacists, educators and teachers); the rest drew lots. Representatives of the peoples of the North and Central Asia, some peoples of the Caucasus, the Urals and Siberia (Muslims) were not subject to conscription. Cossacks underwent military service under special conditions. Service life was shortened depending on education. If the person who received the education entered active service voluntarily (as a volunteer), then the service life was further shortened by another half. Under this condition, conscripts who had a secondary education served only seven months, and higher education - three. These benefits became an additional incentive for the spread of education. During the Milyutin reforms, the conditions of service for the lower ranks (soldiers) were significantly changed: corporal punishment was abolished (punishment with rods was reserved only for the category of “fine”); improved food, uniforms and barracks; Strict measures have been taken to stop beatings of soldiers; Systematic literacy training for soldiers was introduced (in company schools). The abolition of conscription, along with the abolition of serfdom, significantly increased the popularity of Alexander II among the peasantry.

At the same time, a harmonious, strictly centralized structure was created to streamline the military command system. In 1862 - 1864 Russia was divided into 15 military districts, directly subordinate to the War Ministry. In 1865, the General Staff was established - the central authority for command and control of troops. Transformations in the sphere of military education were also of serious importance: instead of closed cadet corps, military gymnasiums were established, similar in program to high school(gymnasiums) and opened the way to any higher educational institution. Those who wished to continue their military education entered the institutions established in the 1860s. specialized cadet schools - artillery, cavalry, military engineering. An important feature of these schools was their all-class status, which opened access to the officer corps to persons of non-noble origin. Higher military education was provided by the Academy of the General Staff. artillery, military medical, naval, etc. The army was rearmed (the first rifled breech-loading guns, Berdan rifles, etc.).

Military reforms met with strong opposition from conservative circles of the generals and society; The main opponent of the reforms was Field Marshal Prince. A.I. Baryatinsky. Military “authorities” criticized the reforms for their bureaucratic nature, diminishing the role of the command staff, and overthrowing the centuries-old foundations of the Russian army.

Results and significance of the reforms of the 1860s - 1870s.

The reforms of the 60-70s are a major phenomenon in the history of Russia. New, modern bodies of self-government and courts contributed to the growth of the country's productive forces, the development of civic consciousness of the population, the spread of education, and the improvement of the quality of life. Russia joined the pan-European process of creating advanced, civilized forms of statehood based on the initiative of the population and its expression of will. But these were only the first steps. IN local government The vestiges of serfdom were strong, and many noble privileges remained intact. The reforms of the 60-70s did not affect the upper levels of power. The autocracy and police system inherited from past eras were preserved.

wiki.304.ru / History of Russia. Dmitry Alkhazashvili.