Formation of the Frankish Empire. Frankish Empire (Frankish state)
In the early Middle Ages (the end of the 5th - the middle of the 11th century), the institutional and economic prerequisites that had developed in the Roman Empire received new conditions in connection with its disintegration into independent "national" economies ( early feudal barbarian kingdoms).
Within their sovereign framework, feudalism as a social system is formed. There is a mixture and transformation of social groups of the ancient and tribal system. The economy was dominated by the agricultural sector and subsistence farming. Economically significant urban centers operate mainly in the Mediterranean region - the focus of trade routes between East and West.
Frankish kingdom
Franks - the name of a group of small West Germanic tribes, then extended to the largest of the states formed in Europe after the collapse of the Roman Empire, and subsequently to modern France. The latter turned out to be far to the southwest of Toxandria (between the Meuse and the Scheldt), where in 358 Emperor Julian II the Apostate settled salic francs, accepted into Roman service. The Charbornier forest marked the eastern border of their new lands from ripuarian francs, who lived along the banks of the Rhine and Main.
First dynasty of Frankish kings, Merovingians (481-751), emerged from the leaders of the Salian Franks.
Its founder Clovis I (481–511), grandson of the leader Merovei, introduced salic truth, one of the earliest "barbaric codes". The reasons for collecting various fines (vir, wergelds) listed in this lawsuit, and the ratio of these amounts give an idea of the economic basis of the tribes whose lands were by this time under the rule of Clovis. These and other tribes, which later passed into the citizenship of the Merovingians, we will mention below under the collective name of the Franks.
Franks to the VI century. led a settled way of life, engaged in agriculture, gardening and horticulture, not leaving hunting, fishing and beekeeping. Beef cattle breeding covers all types of large and small livestock. Draft horses are mentioned, as well as the stall keeping of pigs, along with their usual summer grazing in the forests.
salic truth - the source of customary folk law; collection of ancient legal customs. Written down under Clovis, this code book was subsequently edited during the 6th-9th centuries.
He recorded the emergence of a land allod in the form of a limited right of inheritance by direct male descendants of a deceased real estate, an arable allotment within a large family. Allods are isolated in the form of separating the family-individual property of individual households from the communal one. Personal property is being alienated, but land plots are still excluded.
Brand - the general name of the type of neighboring community inherent in various barbarian tribes of Europe. The mark united the peasants of one or several neighboring villages. Its system-forming beginning was two types of ownership. Allodium It was a manor and other freely alienable individual and family property. Almenda, the collective indivisible property of the community members covered pastures, forests and other undivided land.
In addition to economic management (compulsory crop rotation, regulation of the use of almenda), the brand also acted as an institution of public power. Thus, any community member had the right to veto when the community made a decision to accept immigrants.
Thus, within itself, the Frankish community held back the development of proprietary relations and the emergence of a privileged elite. Each community member was personally free, and the code protected the life, honor and dignity of him and his family members.
Along with the communal lands of the brand and small individual farms, large estates also appear in Salic Pravda. The population as a whole was not homogeneous either; a different legal status than that of the community members was among slaves, litas, colones and Romans. Slavery among the Franks, like that of other Germans, combined forms newly adopted from the Romans with those already established before the contact of the Franks with the empire.
Do you (among the Anglo-Saxons armor ) - the estate of the Franks, Saxons and Lombards ( altii ), which occupied an intermediate position between free community members and slaves. Not being legally capable of independent lease, the litas received plots for cultivation on behalf of their patron, to whom they paid dues. In the future, litas become one of the categories of the enslaved peasantry.
At the top of the social hierarchy of the Franks were the king, his retinue, as well as satsebarons (judicial-fiscal position), counts and vicegraphs (officials, also referred to as "royal slaves") and other representatives of the still emerging in the 5th-6th centuries. royal court.
All amounts in the Salic truth are expressed in the Roman monetary system: in solids or denarii, which then made up 1/4 of the solidus. But this money figures only as a measure of value; in fact, the calculations consisted in the transfer of livestock or other material values.
One of the sections Ripuarian truth (V-VIII centuries) gives a price list for these purposes: a horse - 12 solids, a cow or a mare - 3 solids, a bull - 2 solids, a sword without a scabbard 3 solids, and with a scabbard - 7 solids, etc. It is noteworthy that the cities in these codes are not mentioned at all, and artisans (not free, since we are talking about their abduction) are highly valued.
During the time during which they sent their fellow tribesmen to serve in the Roman legions, the Franks gained serious skills in organizing squads and waging battle. The division of the empire into East and West (395), and the ensuing numerous battles between Rome and its barbarian encirclement, provided the Franks, maneuvering between these sides, with the opportunity to expand the boundaries of their kingdom; especially in the direction of Gaul. By the time of the death of Clovis, the Franks owned Reims, Orleans, Lutetia (Paris) and Soissons, inherited by the four sons of the king: Theodoric, Chlodomir, Childebert and Chlothar.
As the Franks expanded, they brought some of the brand's traditions to new lands. Collective ownership of land provided stability to peasant farms, regardless of their size and number of eaters. The mark also rallied landowners into collective rural structures, which contributed to the further development of feudal relations in the countryside.
By increasing the plot of land - its main production basis - allod as a unit of management enhances the qualities of its self-sufficiency. Campaigns of conquest accelerate the decay of the brand. Through allods, royal warriors settle on communal lands. As the number of allods grows, the property of the community is reduced, remaining only in relation to the lands that have not yet been divided.
The Franks were a union of tribes of ancient Germanic tribes. They lived east of the lower Rhine. The forests of Charbonnière divided them into Salii and Ripuarii. In the 4th century, Toxandria began to belong to them, where they became federates of the empire.
Formation of the Frankish kingdom
The Great Migration of Nations allowed the Merovingian dynasty to occupy a dominant position. In the second half of the 5th century Clovis, a representative of the dynasty, led the Salian Franks. The king was famous for his cunning and enterprise. Thanks to these qualities, Clovis was able to create a powerful Frankish empire.
In 481, the coronation of the first king took place in Reims. According to legend, a dove sent from heaven brought a phial with oil for the ceremony of greasing the kingdom of the king.
Frankish kingdom under Clovis
Soissons with the surrounding territory turned out to be the last Gallic lands that belonged to Rome. Paternal experience told Holdwig about the huge treasures of villages and cities near Paris, as well as about the weakened Roman power. In 486, the troops of Syagrius near Soissons were defeated, and the power of the former empire passed to Holdwig. To increase the territory of his kingdom, he went with the army to the Alemans in Cologne. Once the Alemanni pushed back the Ripuarian Franks. Near Zulpich there was a battle that went down in history as the Battle of Tolbiac. She had great importance on the fate of the king. The pagan Holdwig was married to the Burgundian princess Clotilde, who was a Christian by religion. She had long urged her husband to accept her faith. When the Alemanni began to win in battle, Holdwig promised at the top of his voice to be baptized if he could win. The army consisted of many Gallo-Roman Christians. Heard lunch inspired the soldiers, who subsequently won the battle. The enemy fell, and many of his warriors asked Holdwig for mercy. The Alemani fell into dependence on the Franks. On Christmas Day 496 Holdwig was baptized in Reims.
Holdwig brought a lot of wealth as a gift to the church. He changed his sign: instead of three toads on a white background, there were three fleur-de-lis on blue. The flower has acquired a symbolic meaning of purification. The squad was baptized at the same time. All Franks became Catholics, and the Gallo-Roman population became one people. Now Holdwig was able to act under his banner as a fighter against heresy.
In 506, a coalition is formed against the Visigothic king, who owned ¼ of the southwestern Gallic lands. In 507, the Visigoths were driven back beyond the Pyrenees, and the Byzantine emperor named Holdwig a Roman consul, sending him a purple mantle and a crown. The Roman and Gallic nobility had to recognize Holdwig in order to maintain their possessions. Wealthy Romans intermarried with the Frankish leaders, forming one ruling layer.
The emperor sought to achieve a suitable balance of power in the western territory and form a stronghold against the Germans. The Byzantines preferred to pit the barbarians against each other.
Holdwig sought to unite all the Frankish tribes. He used cunning and atrocities to achieve this goal. With cunning and harshness, he destroyed his former allied leaders, subordinate to the Merovingians.
Over time, Clovis became the ruler of all the Franks. But soon he died. He was buried in Paris in the church of Saint Genevieve, which he built with his wife.
The kingdom passed to the four sons of Holdwig. They divided it into equal parts and sometimes united for military purposes.
Administration of the Frankish kingdom under Clovis
Holdwig codified law, documenting old Frankish customs and new royal decrees. He became the sole supreme ruler. He had the entire population of the country under his command, and not just the Frankish tribes. The king had more powers than the military leader. Power could now be inherited. Any action against the king was punishable by death. People close to the king were appointed to each region - counts. Their duties included collecting taxes, sending military detachments, and managing the court. The supreme judicial authority was the king.
To preserve the conquered lands, it was necessary to provide reliable support for the retinue that accompanied the king. This could provide a treasury full of gold and a constant seizure of new funds from rivals. Holdwig and subsequent rulers, in order to consolidate their power and control over new territories, generously distributed lands to combatants and close associates for good and faithful service. Such a policy contributed to the increase in the process of land subsidence of the squad. The combatants became feudal landowners throughout Europe.
Government scheme of the Frankish kingdom
Chlothar, Childeber, Chlodomir and Thierry became four kings of one kingdom. Historians have called the Frankish kingdom "Shared Kingdom".
At the end of the 5th and beginning of the 6th centuries, the scheme for managing the kingdom changed. Power over one people was replaced by power in a specific territory, and, accordingly, power over different peoples.
The Franks united in 520-530 to take over the Burgundian state. The sons of Holdwig, by joint efforts, were able to annex the region of Provence, the lands of the Bavarians, Thuringians and Alemanni.
However, the unity was only illusory. The family began discord and civil strife with treacherous and cruel murders. Chlodomer died during a military campaign against Burgundy. His children were killed by their own uncles Chlothar and Childeber. Chlothar turned out to be the king of Orleans. Together with his brother in 542, they went to the Visigoths and captured Pamplona. After the death of Chldebert, Chlothar seized his part of the kingdom.
By 558, Chlothar I had unified Gaul. He left behind three heirs, one hundred led to a new division into three states. In the country of the Merovingians there was no economic, ethnic, political and judicial-administrative unity. The social structure in the kingdom was different. Under pressure from the land authorities at the beginning of the 7th century, the king himself limited his power.
Subsequent rulers from the Merovingian house were insignificant. The affairs of state were decided by mayors, whom the king himself appointed from noble families. In this mess, the highest position was that of the manager of the palace. He became the first person after the king. The Frankish state broke up into 2 parts:
- Austrasia - German lands in the eastern part;
- Neustria is the western part.
West Frankish kingdom
The West Frankish kingdom occupies the territory of modern France. In 843, the Treaty of Verdun was concluded between the grandsons of Charlemagne to divide the Frankish Empire. Dynastic ties were at first maintained between the Frankish kingdoms. They were conditionally still part of the Frankish "Roman Empire". Starting from 887, in the western part, the imperial power was no longer considered supreme.
Feudal fragmentation began in the kingdom. Counts and dukes symbolically recognized the power of the king, sometimes they could be at enmity with him. The king was chosen by the feudal lords.
In the 9th century, the Normans began to invade the kingdom. They collected tribute not only from the people, but also from the king. The Norman prince Rollond and the West Frankish king in 911 concluded an agreement on the formation of the county of Normandy. The merchant and feudal estates began to belong to the conquerors.
By 987, the West Frankish kingdom gradually turned into France. In this year, the last representative of the Carolingian dynasty died, and the Capetian dynasty took its place. Louis VIII was officially named the first king of France in 1223.
East Frankish Kingdom
According to the Treaty of Verdino, Louis II of Germany got the lands to the east of the Rhine and the north of the Alps. The formed kingdom would prove to be the forerunner of the strongest Holy Roman Empire and the current Germany.
The king's official title was "King of the Franks" until 962.
During its existence, the territory expanded. Lortoringia, Alsace, the Netherlands were added to it. Regensurg became the capital of the kingdom.
The unusualness of the East Frankish kingdom lay in its composition. It united 5 large duchies: Thuringia, Swabia, Franconia, Bavaria and Saxony. They represented tribal semi-independent principalities.
The eastern part differed from the western backwardness in socio-political terms due to the influence of the state-legal institutions of Rome and the preservation of tribal relations.
In the 9th century, there was a process of consolidation of power and awareness of the unity of the German nation and state. The principle of inheritance of power by the eldest son was formed. In the absence of a direct heir, the king was elected by the nobility.
In 962, the King of the East Frankish Kingdom assumes the title of "Emperor of the Romans and Franks" and establishes the "Holy Roman Empire".
In 395, the Roman Empire, by the will of its last emperor, Theodosius, was divided between his sons into two parts. This is how the Western Roman Empire with its capital in Rome and the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) with its capital in Constantinople were formed.
The Western Roman Empire fell under the blows of the barbarian tribes in the 5th century. A new period in history began, called the "Middle Ages".
Barbarians in the Western Roman Empire
The Romans, following the Greeks, called "barbarians" all peoples living outside their state and speaking a language incomprehensible to them. They gave them the collective name "Germans".
Initially, the Germans moved from the Rhine to the Danube in search of food, shelter and wealth, leaving behind disasters and the destruction of houses, bridges and roads. Not all Germanic tribes were wild barbarians; some of them switched to a settled way of life and tried to live in a civilized way. The leader of the German tribe Odoacer, who deposed the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, Romulus Augustulus, managed to establish diplomatic relations with the Byzantine Empire. In the future, the barbarians created kingdom-states, some of which lasted several centuries.
Formation of barbarian kingdoms
Having settled in the territory of the former Roman Empire, the barbarian tribes created their own kingdoms. By the end of the 5th century, several barbarian states were known, among which were the Visigothic (formed by the Western Goths), the Ostrogothic (created by the Eastern Goths), the Vandal (the state of the Vandal tribe), the Burgundian (the state of the Burgundians) and the Frankish state created by the Franks. The rest of the Germanic tribes did not have their own statehood.
Large associations of Germanic tribes settled in the territories that now belong to western Germany and western France. In the conquered areas, the Germans were a minority of the population, but they held power thanks to their militancy and well-organized leadership.
The formation of barbarian states changed the life of the Germanic tribes. The differences between the conquerors and the conquered peoples gradually smoothed out, business and family ties began to be established between them. The Germans began to adopt the way of life, traditions, methods of leadership and legislation of the conquered peoples; experienced Roman nobility was involved in government. Taxes had to be paid not only by the Romans, but also by the Germans. But the inequality between the Germans and the Romans persisted: the Romans were not allowed to join the army - only the Germans could serve the king.
In economic terms, the conquerors used the advanced Roman methods of farming. Internal trade was restored, which was widely developed in the Roman Empire; increased trade in handicraft goods between states.
The rise of the Frankish state
In 486, as a result of the unification of the Germanic tribes that had advanced from Northern Europe(from the territory of modern Belgium) the state of the Franks was formed in Gaul. In ancient times, Gaul was a province of the Roman Empire, conquered by Julius Caesar.
Over the centuries, the Gauls adopted a lot from the culture and lifestyle of the Romans. From the name of the Frankish tribes who came to the territory of Gaul, there was the name of the country that later formed here - France.
The main dynasties that ruled the Franks for a long time were the Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties. The history of the Frankish kingdom begins with the Merovingian dynasty. ()
State of the Franks under Clovis
Reign of King Clovis
The leader of the Salian Frankish tribe, Clovis, from the Merovei clan, was the founder of the Merovingian royal dynasty (V-VII centuries).
Clovis (486-511) managed to unite all the Franks into a single state that lasted 200 years. His reign marked a turning point in European history for several reasons:
- - Clovis created the first strong state of the Franks, located north of the Alps;
- - He became the first military leader of the Franks, who received the title of king;
- - Clovis was the first of the kings of the barbarian states to accept Christianity.
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Borders of the state of the Franks in the VI century
The territory of the new state during the reign of Clovis expanded significantly and became about three times larger than the territory of Gaul, which the Franks came to in the 5th century. Borders have shifted in all directions; especially a lot of land was conquered in the west and southwest. By 507, the entire territory in which modern France is located was under the rule of Clovis. The capital of the state was the city of Paris.
The expansion of the borders led to the acquisition of the wealth of the conquered peoples, who were forced to pay tribute to the Franks.
Administration in the Kingdom of the Franks
To create a powerful kingdom, Clovis used a single power, a single law and a single religion. All power was concentrated in the hands of the king: he was the supreme owner of all lands; all taxes went to the royal treasury and the king was the commander-in-chief of the army (team). In case of military necessity, a militia was assembled, which also entered the service of the king.
To strengthen the state, Clovis ordered to collect all the norms and rules existing among the Franks into a single legislation, called the Salic Truth (LexSalica). With the help of established laws, binding on all inhabitants of the country, it was possible to keep the Franks in obedience and maintain order in the state. Salic truth is an important source for studying the legislation, management system, economy and customs of the Franks.
When governing the state, Clovis relied on a single religion - Christianity, to which he himself converted and forced his subjects to convert. His role in converting the Franks to Christianity was so great that the Pope officially recognized Clovis as the first king of the Franks.
Changes in the life of the Franks in the VI-VII centuries
Since the 6th century, the Franks began to stratify society: wealthy and poor residents appeared. The peasant community, which previously supported its members, helping them in case of need, lost its significance - there was a withdrawal of peasants from the community in order to create their own farms. Former community members who lost their property left the settlement and became vagrants.
Inequality was reflected in the legislation: the law determined in different ways the measure of responsibility of the rich and the poor for the same crime or violation of the law. For the poor, the fine was several times higher than the fine for wealthy citizens. Judicial punishment for the poor was more severe.
In Frankish society, there were slaves who appeared as a result of conquests. But slave labor was not widely used and gradually disappeared.
Reasons for the strength of the Frankish state
Internal and foreign policy Clovis ensured the strength of the Frankish state. The reasons for the sustainable development of the country were the following features of the state structure of the Franks:
Royal power was concentrated in the center, at the court of the king, and on the outskirts of the country, the envoys of the king, the counts, followed the observance of royal decrees and the collection of taxes in favor of the king;
The dependence of the Frankish nobility on the king was ensured by the fact that the aristocracy - counts and dukes - received land from the king, provided that he carried military service;
The army (team) was in full submission to Clovis.
The centralization of power and reliance on close associates allowed Clovis to create a strong state.
The weakening of the state of the Franks under the successors of Clovis. Battle of Poitiers
Weakening of the state of the Franks
After the death of Clovis, at his will in 511, the state of the Franks was divided into four parts, transferred under the control of the sons of Clovis.
Initially, the expansion of the state, begun by Clovis, continued under his sons: Burgundy was annexed to the Frankish state. But over time, the divided state lost its power, the power of the kings became weaker, and the rulers (mayordoms or majordomes) who were at the royal court, who knew the secrets of government well, concentrated significant power in their hands. They managed to turn into large landowners and become military leaders in their areas.
In the 7th-8th centuries, the power of the mayordoms became so strong that they could appoint and dismiss kings, who received the name "lazy" because of their weakness. The Merovingian dynasty was losing power. Mayor Karl Martell at the beginning of the 8th century managed to defeat rivals striving for complete power and lay the foundations of a new dynasty - the Carolingians (from the Latin spelling of the name Charles - Carolus). The Carolingians ruled the Frankish state from the end of the 7th century, first as majordoms, and from 751 as kings.
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Wars of the founder of the Carolingian dynasty
The founder of the Carolingian dynasty, Charles Martell (715-741), set as his goal the strengthening of the central government. To do this, he had to pacify the recalcitrant Germans. Having defeated the Saxons, Frisians, Bavarians, the Dukes of Aquitaine and the rulers of Provence, Charles Martel forced them to pay tribute to him.
Martell had to fight a new external threat - the Arab conquerors. The Arabs, moving from the Arabian Peninsula, had as their goal the creation of a huge Islamic state- Caliphate. They managed to win a significant part European countries, including Spain; their next target was the state of Charles Martel.
In 732, a well-trained Arab army invaded the territory of the Frankish kingdom, but was rebuffed. The decisive battle of the Franks with the Arab army took place at Poitiers. In the battle, Karl Martell used new units - the Frankish cavalry. The Franks inflicted a crushing defeat on the Arabs, the leader of the Arabs died in battle. The significance of the Frankish victory was great: by defeating the Arab offensive, they protected the rest of Europe from foreign conquest and prevented the conversion of the Christian population to the Islamic religion.
The main features of feudal relations in the state of the Franks
After the victory over the rebellious feudal lords and Arabs, the state of the Franks continued to strengthen. New relations were formed, which were called feudal (from the word "feud"). A feud is a piece of land received from a ruler on condition that he performs military service. The feud could be inherited if the sons of the deceased owner continued to serve in the military. The property included a land plot along with settlements located on it, fields, meadows, forests, rivers and roads.
With the strengthening of the feudal system, the peasants increasingly became dependent on the feudal lords, as they had to bear certain duties (for example, work on the land of the owner for a certain number of days) and pay taxes. Due to lack of funds, the peasants fell into debt dependence on the feudal lords. Many of the workers went bankrupt and left the village in search of a better life.
To create a land fund, Charles Martell confiscated the lands of recalcitrant feudal lords, partially took away church and monastic lands, which caused dissatisfaction with part of the feudal lords and the Catholic Church. This problem had to be solved by the next rulers of the Carolingian dynasty.
Rule of the Carolingian dynasty in the 8th century. Education of the Papal States
Beginning of the Carolingian dynasty
The first Carolingians were mayordoms; Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel, became the first king of the Carolingian dynasty. The new dynasty ruled the state of the Franks from 751 to 843 and was glorified not only by Pepin the Short, but also by his son, named Charlemagne.
Pepin the Short managed to enlist the support of the feudal lords and the church - the church lands selected under Charles Martell were recognized as church property and returned to the church. The Catholic Church became a loyal ally of the Carolingian kings.
In 751 Pepin the Short was crowned king by the pope. For the subjects of the kingdom, this meant that Pepin received support from God himself. The last Merovingian king was sent to a monastery. In exchange for the favor of the pope, Pepin promised support for the Catholic Church, whose possessions were attacked by the Germanic tribe of the Lombards. The skillful policy of Pepin the Short made it possible to strengthen the Frankish state.
Carolingians and the Papal States
In the history of the Catholic Church, the formation of the papal region was of great importance. The territories of the city of Rome and the lands adjacent to it were part of the Byzantine Empire until the middle of the 8th century, then they were conquered by the Lombards. Events forced the Pope to seek protection from the Franks. Pepin the Short made two campaigns against the Lombards, in 754 expelled the Lombards from Rome and handed over Rome and Ravennupapa. Thus was formed the Papal States, where the Pope ruled undividedly.
The borders of the Papal States separated northern Italy from southern Italy and stretched from the shores of the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Adriatic coast. The granting of land to the Pope strengthened the alliance between the Catholic Church and the Frankish state.
The reign of the Merovingians and the first Carolingians laid the foundation for the creation of large and strong European states
In the first half of the 1st millennium, Germanic tribes historically declared themselves on the territory of Western Europe. They gradually spread from their ancestral home (the interfluve of the Rhine and Oder) across the territory of the northern provinces of the Roman Empire. The Germanic tribes became the external force that accelerated the collapse of the Western Roman statehood. On the basis of a new political and legal community, a new, feudal statehood arose in Europe.
The Germanic tribes entered into active contact with the Roman Empire and the peoples of Gaul in the 1st century BC. Then they were at the stage of tribal life and the formation of supra-communal administration. Contact with a more developed empire, the need to wage constant wars with it, and then cooperate on a military basis, accelerated the formation of a proto-state organization among the Germanic peoples (which did not constitute a single people, but disintegrated into alliances of tribes). This organization was formed without any reliance on cities, which became the most important historical feature German path to statehood.
The basis of social relations among the Germans was the tribal community with collective ownership of the main means of agricultural production. Individual property was unknown, although the use of ancestral possessions and property was already family. Slave labor was used in family farms. A special stratum was made up of freedmen, who were by no means equated with members of the community. A tribal nobility stood out, the social weight of which was based not only on military merits, but also on traditional advantages in land use, in the accumulation of wealth.
The peculiarity of the historical situation affected the duality of the proto-state structure among the Germans: the rule of the tribal nobility was intertwined with the military squad rule, and often even retreated before it. At the head of most tribes and associations were kings and, next to them, military leaders: the royal (royal) power was the power of the elder of the tribe. The chiefs, on the other hand, commanded the militia of a tribe or association and were elected on the basis of the best suitability and personal merit in the war.
The structure of military democracy gave rise to yet another phenomenon: the great importance of squads grouped around military leaders. These squads were formed according to the principle of personal loyalty and were the most important element in the transformation of the power of tribal leaders into military kings, who consolidated their influence on the squads by distributing booty, special feasts and awards. From military-druzhina relations, the Germans developed the principle of personal service to the king - important for subsequent statehood.
The strengthening of the military-druzhina principle in the proto-state, the isolation of the early royal power (up to its transformation into hereditary) occurred by the 2nd - 3rd centuries, when, under the influence of global ethnic movements in Europe, the Germans intensified their pressure on the provinces of the Roman Empire.
In IV - V centuries. large movements of barbarian tribes in Europe (stimulated by the Great Migration of Peoples that began from Asia) became the external cause of the defeat and then the collapse of the Roman Empire. New barbarian kingdoms were formed on the territory of the former empire. Their organization and relations of power in them were built on the interweaving of the traditions of the military tribal system of the Germans and the institutions of Roman statehood.
1. BARBARIAN KINGDOM
1.2. VESTGOTHIC AND OSTGOTHIC KINGDOM
One of the most powerful eastern branches of the Germans, the Visigoths, had their own state even before the final collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Displaced at the end of the 4th c. from the Danubian lands by the Huns during the Great Migration of Peoples, the Visigoths first infiltrated the Eastern Roman Empire, and at the beginning of the 5th century. - to Italy. Relations with the Roman Empire among the Visigoths were originally based on a military-federative alliance. But by the middle of the century it had become nominal. During the 5th century Visigoths entrenched in southern Gaul and northern Spain.
At this time, the Visigothic society was experiencing an accelerated process of formation of a proto-state. Until the middle of the 5th c. People's assemblies played the main role in governance. In the second half of the 5th c. royal power increased: kings appropriated the right to create a court, to issue laws. There was a special relationship between the kings and the military nobility, which gradually intercepted the right to elect kings from the people's assemblies. The basis for consolidating the power of the nobility was land grants made on behalf of the king. Under King Eirich, the most important remnants of military democracy were eliminated among the Visigoths, a code of laws was published (using the Roman experience), special judges and administrators appeared - committees.
At the beginning of the VI century. the Visigoths were ousted from Southern Gaul by the Franks (the northern branch of the Germans) and formed the Kingdom of Toledo (VI - VIII centuries) in Spain.
The power of the king was elective and unstable. Only at the end of the VI century. one of the Visigothic rulers managed to give it some stability; during the 6th century kings were regularly deposed by being killed. critical role in the Visigothic state, meetings of the nobility - hardings played. They elected kings, passed laws, decided some court cases. The Hardings met without a definite system, but their consent was necessary for major political decisions. In the 7th century along with them, the church councils of Toledo became important in the life of the kingdom, where not only church, but also national affairs were decided. The large role of meetings of the military, church and administrative nobility of the Visigoths in the state implied an increase in its positions in the social system: already from the 6th century. here a hierarchy of land ownership was formed, which created different levels of social subordination and privilege.
The evolution of the Visigothic state in the direction of a new statehood was interrupted by the invasion of Spain by the Arabs and their conquest in the 8th century. Kingdom of Toledo.
Another part of the East German branch of the tribes - the Ostrogoths - after a short federal union with the East Roman Empire formed own state in Italy. The territory of the Ostrogothic kingdom (493 - 555) also covered the Alpine Gaul (modern Switzerland, Austria, Hungary) and the coast of the Adriatic Sea. The Ostrogoths seized in their favor up to a third of the lands of the former Roman landowners, previously captured by previous conquerors.
Unlike other Germanic peoples, the Ostrogoths practically retained in their kingdom the former state apparatus of the Roman Empire; the Roman and Gallo-Roman population continued to obey their own law, their own administration. The Senate, the praetorian prefect, the municipal authorities continued to exist - and they all remained in the hands of the Romans. The Gothic population was subject to the management established on the basis of the German military tribal tradition, which at the same time was nationwide.
The power of the king among the Ostrogoths was very significant from the very time of the mastery of Italy. He was recognized for the rights of legislation, minting coins, appointing officials, conducting diplomatic relations, and financial powers. This power was considered to be above the law and outside the laws.
The remnants of military democracy among the Ostrogoths were weaker: at the end of the 5th century. there were practically no similarities of popular meetings. A much larger role (than it was even in the Roman Empire) was played by the Royal Council. It was both a military council and the highest judicial body. It was made up of the king's advisers, his squire, the palace entourage - the committee. The Committee was in charge of the appointment of church ministers and the determination of taxes.
Locally, in special districts, all power belonged to the Gothic committees, or counts, appointed by the king. They had military, judicial, administrative and financial powers over both the Gothic and Roman populations, they controlled the activities of other officials on their territory. Their tasks also included "preservation of calm" on their lands, police activities. In the border regions, the role of rulers was played by dukes (duces), who, in addition to administrative, military and judicial power, also possessed some legislative rights in their territory. Conditional unity in the work of such a semi-state administration should have been introduced by royal envoys - sayons, who were entrusted with a variety of affairs, mainly to control other rulers and officials (without assigning their functions), to eliminate offenses or especially important incidents. Their powers also applied equally to both the Roman and the Gothic population. The dukes and counts also commanded the Gothic army, which in Italy was already permanent and was on state support.
The Ostrogothic kingdom turned out to be short-lived (in the middle of the 6th century Italy was conquered by Byzantium). But the political system that had developed in it was important historical example significant influence of the traditions of the Roman Empire on the formation of a new statehood.
1.2. Frankish State of the Merovingians.
At the end of the 5th century in Northern Gaul (modern Belgium and Northern France), the early state of the Franks was formed - the most powerful union of the northern Germanic tribes. The Franks came into contact with the Roman Empire in the 3rd century, settling from the northern Rhine regions. In the second half of the 4th c. they settled in Gaul as federates of Rome, gradually spreading their possessions and getting out of the power of Rome. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Franks (who also called themselves Salic) captured the remnants of Roman possessions in Gaul, defeating the independent semi-kingdoms that had formed there. On the conquered lands, the Franks settled mainly in whole communities, clans, taking part of the empty lands, part of the land of the former Roman treasury, and part of the local population. However, in the main relations between the Franks and the Gallo-Roman population were peaceful. This further ensured the formation of a completely new socio-ethnic community of the Celtic-Germanic synthesis.
During the conquest of Gaul, the Franks raised the leader of one of the tribes - Clovis. By 510, he had succeeded in destroying the other leaders and declaring himself to be, as it were, the representative of the Roman emperor (the nominal preservation of political ties with the empire was one of the ways to proclaim his special rights). During the VI century. remnants of military democracy were preserved, the people still participated in the legislation. However, the importance of royal power gradually grew. To a large extent, this was facilitated by an increase in the income of the kings, who established a regular collection of taxes in the form of polyudya. In 496, Clovis, with his retinue and part of his fellow tribesmen, converted to Christianity, which ensured the support of the Gallo-Roman church for the emerging statehood.
Previously, the state of the Franks was weakly centralized, reproducing the tribal division in the territorial structure. The country was subdivided into counties, counties - into districts (pagi), former Roman communities; the lowest unit, but very important, was the hundred. Districts and hundreds retained self-government: the district and hundreds of people's assemblies resolved court cases, were in charge of the layout of taxes. The count was not a general ruler, he ruled only the king's possessions in the county (in other areas such rulers were called satsebarons); by virtue of dominal rights, he had judicial powers and administrative powers in relation to the subject population.
The basis of state unity was initially predominantly a military organization. The annual meeting of the militia - the "March fields" - played a significant role in solving state and political issues, in particular war and peace, the adoption of Christianity, etc. By the end of the 6th century. they are out of the ordinary. But in the seventh century restored again, although they have acquired a different content. By the 7th century not only Franks, but also the Gallo-Roman population, not only free, but also dependent land holders - litas, began to be attracted to military service. Military service began to turn into a national duty, and the "March Fields" became for the most part reviews of the military service population.
The center of public administration in the VI century. became a royal court. Under King Dagobert (7th century), they established themselves as permanent positions of a referendary (he is also the keeper of the seal of the king), a royal count (high judge), head of finance, treasure keeper, and abbot of the palace. The court and the immediate environment, mostly church, formed the royal council, which influenced the conclusion of contracts, the appointment of officials, and land grants. Officials for special cases, financial, commercial and customs agents were appointed by the king and removed at his discretion. The dukes had a somewhat special position - the rulers of several united districts.
Up to two times a year, meetings of the nobility (bishops, counts, dukes, etc.) took place, where general political matters, mainly church matters, and about awards were decided. The most numerous and important were the spring ones, the autumn ones were narrow in composition and more palace-like.
By its very nature, the early Frankish state was not stable. From the turn of the VI-VII centuries. a noticeable separation of three regions of the kingdom began: Neustria (northwest with a center in Paris), Austrasia (northeast), Burgundy. By the end of the 7th century Aquitaine stood out in the south. The regions differed markedly in the composition of the population, the degree of feudalization, and the administrative and social system. The fluid collapse of the state first of all caused the weakening of royal power. At the end of the 7th century real powers were in the hands of the royal mayors - the rulers of palaces in certain areas. Mayordoms took over the business of land grants, and with it control over the local aristocracy and vassals. The last Merovingian kings withdrew from power.
2. Frankish Empire of the Carolingians
2.1. FORMING AN EMPIRE
From the end of the 7th century the formation of the state among the Franks began almost anew, and it went a different political path. Although the established apparatus of the royal court and royal administration created an undoubted historical background for this process. After a long struggle between different branches of the Frankish nobility, the real control of the country passed to the majors of Austrasia.
By the beginning of the 8th century in the lands of the Frankish kingdom, the process of the formation of new social forces was clearly manifested. On the one hand, these are large landowners of Gallo-Roman origin and, to a lesser extent, Germanic (whose possessions were mostly formed by royal grants and protected by immunities). On the other hand, there is a large category of dependent peasants, freedmen who entered into bondage or under the patronage of large landowners and acquired a status similar to Roman columns. The largest land holdings were concentrated in the Catholic Church, which began to play an almost state-political role in the kingdom. The objective task of the new state was to link the new social structure with political institutions - without such a connection, any statehood would not have gone beyond the royal palaces.
The solution of such a historical task was carried out in the course of the reform of Charles Martel (first half of the 8th century), Pitan's successor. Its essence lay in the fact that the land grants of the kings (essentially, mayors) to the military service strata became not full and independent, but conditional property. The first such awards - benefices are generally known from the 730s. in church property. This reorganized the military organization accordingly, which was also of particular need, since the Frankish monarchy was actively at war with the Arabs in Spain, with the recalcitrant Germanic tribes and semi-states in the East, and with their own rebellious magnates.
The immediate consequences of the reform were significant. Thanks to her, it was possible to create a large cavalry army, which then came to the fore, in the conduct of the war - chivalry. But more importantly, between the monarchy and the bulk of the privileged and free population, a real service-political connection was established, based on the hierarchy of landed property - feudal in the narrow sense.
Under the son and successor of Charles, Pepin the Short, another significant political upheaval took place for the state. Relying on the support of the church, Pepin the Short deposed the last of the Merovingians and proclaimed himself the official king of the Franks. The "Assembly of all Franks", and in fact, the assembly of the nobility, confirmed the election. In order to give the new monarchy a special sacred character, Pepin was crowned through a special procedure of chrismation. The new status of royal power, a new military organization and social and land system, special legal and ideological and political relations with the church became the foundations of the new Frankish Carolingian monarchy (751 - 987), named after its most famous representative, Charlemagne.
During the reign of Charlemagne (768 - 814), the territory of the kingdom increased significantly due to successful conquests. The possessions of the Carolingians embraced most Europe: from Central Spain to the Baltic Sea and from Northern France to Central Italy and the Adriatic coast; Aachen (modern Germany) was chosen as the capital. Such an expansion of the state, without any reliance on ethnic and social unity, certainly led to the weakening of a single state structure. The only support for the new monarchy was the expanding vassal-service relations and the new state apparatus that had grown out of the royal court. In 800, due to the special political pressure of the Roman Church (which tried to make the kingdom an instrument of its claims to hegemony in Europe), the state was proclaimed an empire. With this, the status and independence of individual lands in the state were to be significantly reduced.
The general political process of strengthening the new monarchy naturally affected the formation of a qualitatively new state organization. The ways of this formation were, firstly, the multiple strengthening of the political and administrative influence of the royal court, and secondly, the gradual nationalization of local self-government, which was one of the important forming elements for the barbaric early state. Great was also the influence of the church and ecclesiastical institutions, as well as the Roman tradition of political institutions.
Royal (imperial) power acquired a special character and powers. The power and personality of the emperor received sacred recognition from the church, thus, as it were, a special divine content. The imperial differences in power meant that the Frankish kings, as it were, equate themselves with the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) emperors, take on similar powers and, accordingly, a role in relation to the church. The central state apparatus was still concentrated in the royal court. It grew, and a well-known managerial specialization began in it. The position of mayor was abolished by Pepin in the 8th century. State affairs were mainly distributed among 8 palace ranks: the seneschal supervised the affairs of the palace, the count palatine (or royal count) exercised royal justice, the marshal and constable were in charge of military affairs and took command of the army on behalf of the king, the chamberlain was in charge of royal property and the treasury, the chancellor conducted diplomatic and national affairs, preparation of legislation.
Under the Carolingians, meetings of the nobility began to be identified with the "general assembly of the Franks" in general. They were traditionally held in spring (but already in May) and autumn. The king convened meetings in his palace (under Charlemagne such meetings were held 35 times). Usually, for the consent of the assemblies, the king passed his capitulary laws, as well as major acts on land grants. The discussion lasted 2-3 days. Spiritual and secular ranks met separately, but the most important issues were resolved together.
The count remained the main figure in local government, but his status and powers changed significantly. The count was no longer a conditional head of local communities, but a purely royal appointee. The old county districts were destroyed, and 600-700 new ones were formed in their place. The powers of the counts became wider and acquired mainly a general government character. The counties were divided into hundreds with judicial and financial powers; a hundred was headed by a vicar or centenary (centurion).
Royal envoys (missi) became the new administrative institution of the Carolingians. These were the royal appointees with the highest control powers. Their main task was to control the county administration and carry out some special, often financial and military orders of the king: “Our misses have been appointed in order to bring to the attention of the whole people about everything that we have decreed by our capitularies, and in order to take care of the execution our decrees by all in their entirety.”
The military organization was based on the theoretically universal conscription of the free population (landowners). However, in reality, the service was required to be carried out by persons who had the necessary minimum income (weapons and other support were carried out at personal expense). The hundredth organization contributed to the replacement of the universal duty with a kind of recruitment: hundreds put up the required number of soldiers. With the development of vassal relations, the clientele of vassals was drawn into the circle of military duty.
The empire represented unity only in the general political sense. In reality, it fell apart into various regions, each of which retained, to a greater or lesser extent, its administrative and political traditions. Since 802, the historical part of the empire was divided into special zones, related to large ecclesiastical districts; at the head of each such zone was a group of special state envoys (from the highest spiritual and secular ranks), who supervised the counts and other authorities. The annexed regions (Aquitaine, Provence) were subdivided into former kingdoms, the heads of which retained the title of princes and, in part, the former powers. Finally, the outskirts (mainly the eastern ones) were governed in very different ways; the most typical was administration through appointed prefects.
Church authorities played an important role in state affairs and current administration - bishops, who not only used church lands and people, but also had general jurisdiction, were also part of the military organization.
2.2. DECAY OF THE FRANKISH EMPIRE AND THE FORMATION OF THE GERMAN STATEHOOD
Despite the strengthening of the royal power of the Carolingians and the growing importance of centralized government, the state-political unity of the empire was conditional. With the death of Charlemagne and the transfer of power to his heirs, it became almost illusory. The empire allowed the big feudal magnates to get stronger, who no longer needed a unified state system, all the more so that they had assumed the messianic task. Only the church actively advocated the preservation of the unity of the empire, despite the fact that the positions of a significant part of the bishops individually were different.
The domain traditions of the Carolingians were also in conflict with the interests of statehood as a whole. Even Charlemagne was ready to eliminate the unity of the empire, in 806 issuing a special capitulary on the division of power between his heirs. This division concerned not only territories, but also political powers. Under pressure from the church, Charles's successor Louis was forced to change the order of succession and maintain political unity. According to the capitulary of 817, the historical part of the empire, together with the imperial dignity, was to be inherited according to the principle of majorat - one of the sons, the rest received the usual royal titles and rights over the rest of the former empire. The dominance of the empire over the rest of the kingdoms was envisaged more politically and ideologically than actually governmental. True, the capitulary was soon abolished. And after several years of political disputes, the sons of Charles concluded the Treaty of Verdun in 843. According to it, the Frankish kingdom was politically divided into three approximately equal parts. Each of the brothers received a part of the historical territory of the Frankish state, and then the division went mainly along the established kingdoms.
However, even the resulting kingdoms were too large for the state connections of the time, when they were all based primarily on personal connections and relations of vassalage. Already in the middle of the IX century. Charles the Bald had to conclude additional agreements on power, first with his brothers, then with large feudal lords.
With the collapse of the Carolingian empire (mid-ninth century), an independent East Frankish state was formed on the historical territories of the Germanic tribes. The kingdom included lands predominantly with a German population. Such ethnic cohesion was rare in the Middle Ages. The kingdom did not possess, however, state-political unity. By the beginning of the tenth century Germany represented a set of duchies, the largest of which were Franconia, Swabia, Bavaria, Thuringia, Saxony.
The duchies were not really interconnected with each other, they differed significantly even in social structure. In the western regions, patrimonial feudalism was firmly established, there were almost no free peasants left, and new socio-economic centers - cities - arose. In the eastern regions, the feudalization of society was weak, the social structure was oriented towards communal ties, significant territories remained with the pre-state way of life of barbarian times; only the latest of the barbarian truths appeared there.
The unity of the state was strengthened with the approval of the Saxon dynasty (919 - 1024) on the royal throne. Internecine strife was temporarily overcome, several successful external wars basically determined the territories belonging to the kingdom, established a special political place for the king in the feudal hierarchy - King Otto I was crowned (in the conditional center of the state - Aachen). The formation of a unified state organization of the kingdom was peculiar due to the great dependence of the royal power on the tribal duchies. The formation of statehood in Germany was based on the church as the only bearer of the state principle.
The only organs of state administration in the kingdom were church institutions: monasteries, abbeys, bishoprics. Only they were really interested in creating a more centralized state: Appointment to the highest church positions was made by the king. Thus, the church administration, in fact, turned into a state administration, given that the priestly experience of most of the highest hierarchs began only with the appointment.
The barbarian kingdoms that took shape in Europe in the second half of the 1st millennium, mainly due to the political development of the Germanic peoples, were diverse in territory and existed very different time- from half a century to several centuries. Despite all external differences, it was statehood of one historical type and one form - they were all early feudal monarchies, related in state organization, the system of power relations in society and the principles of state activity.
The formation of early feudal monarchies, barbarian kingdoms, historically took place under the great influence of the traditions of the statehood of the Roman Empire. Not only because almost all these states of the German peoples existed on the former territory of the empire. The new statehood was formed as a synthesis of institutions, institutions and ideas inherited from Rome, and those that grew on their own basis of political evolution and their own traditions of military tribal life. In the history of some kingdoms, the influence of Roman traditions and institutions was small at the beginning (the Frankish kingdom), in others (Ostrogoths or Lombards) it could be predominant. However, this did not mean that as a result of such a historical synthesis, the former ancient type of state organization was revived. Early feudal monarchies were new states in the broadest sense of the word, distinguished by a number of qualitatively new features of political organization. The main institutions and principles of the activity of the early feudal statehood are equally different from the Roman system and from the proto-state institutions of the Germanic peoples.
The basis of political relations in the new states was special feudal ties, conditioned by new forms of land relations, which grew out of military service and personal relations of former warriors to their leader-king. These ties formed a special hierarchy of suzerainty-vassalage, expressed both in the possession of the land wealth of the country, and in the principles of military service and the legal foundations of statehood.
One of the two main axes of the new statehood was therefore the military organization. The second such historical axis was the church organization, which in most early feudal monarchies was not only the most important accumulator of social wealth and financial accumulator, but also a real administrative institution, especially important because by its nature it was subject to the unified authority of the Roman spiritual rulers. The monarchy - the sole power and institutions associated with it - was not of a general political nature, but was patrimonial, inseparable from the powers and rights of the king in relation to his own estates, where he acted as the most powerful and sovereign master-patron, in his own way and only in his own. types suiting the state. Early feudal statehood from the very beginning was completely devoid of any democratic traditions and guidelines; the estate system was the reverse side of the early feudal monarchy, and they were strengthened in parallel.
Despite the fact that for the Germanic peoples, the early feudal monarchy was also the first historical form of statehood that grew for these peoples on the site of proto-state structures (like the ancient policy for Rome and Greece), the early feudal monarchy constituted a new and higher historical form in terms of its impact on society and the coverage of public relations by state regulation.
FRENCH KINGDOM FRENCH KINGDOM
THE FRANK KINGDOM (Frankish state) (lat. Regnum Francorum), a barbarian kingdom founded in Gaul by the Franks (cm. FRANK) in con. 5th c. To the beginning 6th c. the kings of the Salic Franks (the Salic branch of the Frankish tribe had several kings until the 6th century) expanded their possessions to the Seine and the Loire and extended their power over a vast territory along the middle and upper Rhine. B 496 Clovis (cm. CLODVIG I) along with a thousand francs, he was baptized and entered into an alliance with the Catholic bishops, which was of great importance for strengthening the Frankish kingdom.
The alliance with the church provided Clovis with the support of the influential elite of the Gallo-Roman population and people dependent on it in the fight against the barbarian Aryan kings. (cm. ARIANS). Under the sons and grandsons of Clovis, the conquest of Gaul was gradually completed, with the exception of that which remained with the Visigoths (cm. Visigoths) Septimania, Thuringia was conquered, Alemannia and Bavaria were subordinated, although the Bavarians retained their right and their tribal leaders in the Frankish kingdom.
In the 1st floor. 6th c. The Frankish kingdom was a major political union. The Frankish king exercised government power in the center and in the regions through his servants. Royal clerks, who oversaw the correct receipt of contributions to the royal treasury - deductions from trade transactions, court fines etc. - turned into government bodies and replaced the old elected positions.
The bulk of the population of the Frankish state in the era of its formation were free Franks and Gallo-Romans. Below them on the social ladder stood the litas, freedmen and slaves. Ancestral nobility among the Salic Franks during the Merovingian dynasty (cm. MEROVINGIANS) was not, but very quickly stood out serving nobility from among the royal warriors and trusted servants, endowed with large land holdings.
After the death of King Dagobert I in 639, constant internecine wars took place between representatives of the powerful aristocracy. At the same time, everyone surrounded himself with vassals, ruled like a small sovereign, involving in internecine strife the sections of the population dependent on him. In each of the three parts into which the Frankish state was divided - in Burgundy (cm. BURGUNDY (historical region)), Neustria (cm. NEUTRIAN) and Austrasia (cm. Austrasia), there were special chiefs of the palace - mayors (cm. MAYORDOM) who, being representatives of the nobility, actually led the external and internal politics states, ignoring royalty and fighting each other. In the beginning. 640s Thuringia, Alemannia and Bavaria were deposited from the Frankish kingdom, ca. 670 Aquitaine became independent, which began to be controlled by its own independent dukes.
In progress internecine struggle representatives of the aristocracy, the strongest of them rose - Pepin Geristalsky, the major of Austrasia, who in 687 became the single major of all three parts of the Frankish state. The title was left behind the kings of the Merovingian house, all actual power passed to the mayordoms. Relying on their vast land wealth and many vassals from among the free, Pepin and his successors led to the obedience of the nobility, strengthened the military power of the Frankish kingdom. Pepin himself, having coped with the nobility, successfully acted against the Germans in the east, he subjugated part of the territory of the Frisians to his power (cm. FRIES) and reasserted Frankish influence in Alemannia and Bavaria.
Pepin's son, Major Karl Martell (cm. CARL MARTELL)(715–741), distributing as war benefices (cm. BENEFICE) to his warriors of the land of the Frankish Church, he created a well-organized army with which he could undertake the most difficult campaigns. He conquered all of Friesland, consolidated the power of the Franks in Thuringia, and even imposed tribute on the warlike Saxons. He established a close relationship with the Catholic missionaries who planted Christianity among the Germans and consolidated the successes of the Frankish arms beyond the Rhine.
In the south of the state, Charles Martell won at Poitiers (cm. POitiers) in 732 a brilliant victory over the Arabs, who moved into Gaul from Spain they conquered. The Battle of Poitiers was a turning point, after which the further advance of the Arabs into Europe was suspended. He again subjugated Aquitaine to the Franks.
Son of Charles Martell, Pepin the Short (cm. PIPIN Short)(741-768), finally expelled the Arabs from Gaul, conquered Septimania, and continued to consolidate the successes of the Franks behind the Rhine. He completed the conquest of Thuringia, while following the example of his father in the closest alliance with the church.
The Frankish majordomo, with the support of a friendly pope, imprisoned the last Merovingian king in a monastery and in 751 he himself took the throne. The new Frankish king, from whom the new Carolingian dynasty came (cm. CAROLINGIANS), helped, in turn, the pope in the fight against the Lombards (cm. LANGOBARDS) and gave him the area taken from the Lombards (the former Ravenna zkzarhat) to the pope as a secular sovereign. Thus, Pepin laid firm foundations for the penetration of Frankish influence into Italy.
The Frankish state reached its peak under Charlemagne. (cm. CHARLES THE GREAT)(768-814), who sought to unite all the Romanesque and Germanic peoples of the West, using for this the fighting power of the Franks and the support of the Church. In 773-774, Charlemagne conquered Northern Italy and annexed it to the Frankish state, declaring himself king of the Franks and Lombards, by the very fact of this conquest, making the papal throne completely dependent on his power. Of the Germanic tribes, only the Saxons, who occupied almost all of Lower Germany and preserved the old Germanic system, remained independent. For 33 whole years (772-804), Charlemagne introduced Christianity and Frankish rule among the Saxons with iron and blood, until he finally broke their stubbornness. Having conquered Saxony and undertaking a number of campaigns in the Slavic lands, Charles built several fortresses on the border, which later became strongholds for the expansion of the Germans to the east.
The Danube campaigns of Charles led to the destruction of the independence of Bavaria (788) and the defeat (final in 799) of the Avar Khaganate (cm. AVAR KAGANATE). In the south, Charles, continuing the struggle of his predecessors with the Arabs, undertook several campaigns in Spain and extended Frankish rule here to the river. Ebro. The conquests of Charlemagne, which brought all Western European Christian countries (with the exception of England) under the rule of the King of the Franks, gave him the opportunity to advance to the first place among the rulers of Europe and allowed him to achieve the imperial title as the successor to the Western Roman emperors. Charlemagne's assumption of the imperial title in 800 formalized his conquests and cemented his hegemony in Europe.
The collapse of the Frankish state began immediately after the death of Charlemagne. Under his successor Louis the Pious (cm. LOUIS the Pious) the Frankish possessions were divided among his sons. The division led to strife, which especially intensified after the death of Louis. After the Treaty of Verdun (cm. Treaty of Verdun)(843) between the sons of the deceased king, the final division of the Frankish state into three independent states took place: the East Frankish state (Germany), the West Frankish state (France), Italy and Burgundy (the state of Lothair, the Italian kingdom). Italy and Burgundy at times united under one authority, at times they broke up into two independent states.
encyclopedic Dictionary. 2009 .
See what the "FRANK KINGDOM" is in other dictionaries:
The Frankish state at the death of Pippin 768 and the conquest of Charlemagne
This term has other meanings, see Burgundy (meanings). The Kingdom of Burgundy is a Frankish kingdom that arose as a result of the collapse of the Frankish state under the Merovingians in 561. The territory roughly corresponded to ... ... Wikipedia