What is the social status of a person. Social status, income and property
Life is so arranged that we identify ourselves to varying degrees with our statuses and their corresponding roles. Sometimes we literally merge with the role: another clerk behaves dismissively not only with subordinates, but with visitors, households, passers-by, neighbors. The teacher tries to teach everyone who comes across her hand. They transfer the stereotype of behavior from one status to another without even thinking. Why do they behave automatically? But because they merged with their main role (the main status), grew together with them.
Maximum Merge with a role called role identification, a the average or minimum - distance from the role. A university teacher is expected to come to a lecture in a formal suit and tie. Many do just that.
Others prefer loose clothing - a sweater and jeans. Thus, they emphasize a certain distance from the role of a teacher and, at the same time, a rapprochement with students, testifying by their behavior that we are all members of one society, colleagues, equals.
Distancing from a role must be distinguished from reduction of the interstate distance. Student and professor are not only different statuses, but also different ranks in the status hierarchy. The professor is higher, the student is lower.
When a professor is on an equal footing with students, he symbolically shortens the distance between statuses. But when students, not feeling the real difference between ranks, switch to “you”, this is called familiarity - inappropriately cheeky, too casual behavior towards older or superior people.
Since the latter allow familiarity, this indicates very low level of identification a person with his status.
The higher a society values a certain status, the stronger the degree of identification with it. All the more often, the holder of a high status seeks to distinguish it from other statuses with the help of symbolic attributes (orders, medals, uniforms, titles).
Some roles, and most of them - pedestrian, patient, customer, union member, etc. - are personally irrelevant for a person.
Their absence or presence is perceived imperceptibly. A piece of the soul and one's "I" is not invested in them. On the contrary, other roles, and their minority, primarily those associated with the main status, are perceived as part of the "I". Their loss is experienced especially deeply - as an internal tragedy.
A man is a producer of material goods, a family breadwinner. The loss of a job is experienced as a collapse of personality. The unemployed change their style and way of life, relationships with relatives and friends, the structure of leisure, the system of values.
The status of the unemployed brings serious changes to the whole status set. The foundations of the value core of the individual - self-respect and self-esteem - are being destroyed.
Thus, each person has his own role system. But not with all roles a person identifies himself equally - with some (personally significant) more (role identification), with others (secondary) less (distance from the role). The term "reduction of the inter-status distance" describes the nature of the relationship between two or more individuals - carriers of different, but functionally related statuses.
latin word persona, today denoting a person, in ancient Greece and Rome it meant an actor's mask, on which large strokes - so that it could be seen from the last rows of a huge amphitheater - depicted a character or role: the role of a villain, the role of a joker, the role of a defender of the oppressed.
That is, social role is a mask, in which a person puts on when he gets on people. True, she can grow together with him: the role will become an inseparable part of her own "I". It all depends on the degree of identification with the role.
Key concepts:
social social personal
structure status status
Main mixed attributed
status status status
Achievable born status
status status set
Major non-core social
Statuses statuses role
Waiting rank mismatch
Statuses (exports)
Social role-playing
Relationship set identification
Chapter II. social stratification
Terms of stratification
social stratification - central theme of sociology. It describes social inequality in society, the division of social strata by income level and lifestyle, by the presence or absence of privileges. In primitive society, inequality was insignificant, so stratification was almost absent there. In complex societies, inequality is very strong, it divided people by income, level of education, power. Castes arose, then estates, and later classes. In some societies, the transition from one social stratum (stratum) to another is prohibited; there are societies where such a transition is limited, and there are societies where it is completely allowed. Freedom of social movement (mobility) determines whether a society is closed or open.
The term "stratification" comes from geology, where it refers to the vertical arrangement of the Earth's layers. Sociology has likened the structure of society to the structure of the Earth and placed the social strata (strata) also vertically. The basis is the income ladder: the poor are at the bottom, the wealthy are in the middle, and the rich are at the top.
Each stratum includes only those people who have approximately the same income, power, education and prestige. The inequality of distances between statuses is the main property of stratification. She has four measuring rulers, or coordinate axes. All of them are located vertically and next to each other:
· power;
· education;
prestige.
Income - the amount of cash receipts of an individual or family for a certain period of time (month, year). Income is the amount of money received in the form of wages, pensions, allowances, alimony, fees, deductions from profits. Income measured in rubles or dollars that an individual receives (individual income) or family (family income) over a specified period of time, say one month or one year.
On the coordinate axis, we plot equal intervals, for example, up to $5,000, from $5,001 to $10,000, from $10,001 to $15,000, and so on up to $75,000 and beyond.
Incomes are most often spent on maintaining life, but if they are very high, they accumulate and turn into wealth.
Wealth - accumulated income, i.e., the amount of cash or embodied money. In the second case, they are called movable (car, yacht, securities, etc.) and immovable (house, works of art, treasures) property. Usually wealth is inherited. Inheritance can be received by both working and non-working, and only working people can receive income. In addition to them, pensioners and the unemployed have income, but the poor do not. The rich may or may not work. In both cases, they are owners because they have wealth. The main wealth of the upper class is not income, but accumulated property. The salary share is small. For the middle and lower classes, income is the main source of subsistence, since the first, if there is wealth, is insignificant, and the second does not have it at all. Wealth allows you not to work, and its absence forces you to work for the sake of wages.
Wealth and income are unevenly distributed and mean economic inequality. Sociologists interpret it as an indicator that different groups of the population have unequal life chances. They buy different quantities and qualities of food, clothes, housing, etc. People who have more money eat better, live in more comfortable homes, prefer private cars to public transport, can afford expensive vacations, etc. But in addition to obvious economic advantages, the wealthy strata have hidden privileges. The poor have shorter lives (even if they enjoy all the benefits of medicine), less educated children (even if they go to the same public schools), etc.
Education measured by the number of years of education in a public or private school or university. Let's say elementary School means 4 years, incomplete secondary - 9 years, complete secondary - 11, college - 4 years, university - 5 years, graduate school - 3 years, doctoral studies - 3 years. Thus, a professor has more than 20 years of formal education behind him, while a plumber may not have eight.
Power measured by the number of people affected by the decision you make (power - the ability to impose one's will or decisions on other people, regardless of their desire). The decisions of the President of Russia apply to 148 million people (whether they are implemented is another question, although it also concerns the issue of power), and the decisions of the foreman - to 7-10 people.
essence authorities - in the ability to impose one's will against the wishes of other people. In a complex society, power institutionalized, i.e. protected by laws and tradition, surrounded by privileges and wide access to social benefits, allows you to make decisions that are vital for society, including laws that, as a rule, are beneficial to the upper class. In all societies, people who wield some form of power—political, economic, or religious—constitute an institutionalized elite. It defines the internal foreign policy states, directing it in a direction that is beneficial to itself, which other classes are deprived of.
Three scales of stratification - income, education and power - have completely objective units of measurement: dollars, years, people. Prestige is outside this range, as it is a subjective indicator.
Prestige - respect, which in public opinion is enjoyed by this or that profession, position, occupation. The profession of a lawyer is more prestigious than the profession of a steelworker or a plumber. The position of president of a commercial bank is more prestigious than that of a cashier. All professions, occupations and positions that exist in a given society can be placed from top to bottom on the ladder of professional prestige. As a rule, professional prestige is determined by us intuitively, approximately. But in some countries, primarily in the United States, sociologists measure it with the help of special methods. They study public opinion, compare different professions, analyze statistics and finally get an accurate scale of prestige.
Since 1947 National Research Center public opinion The United States periodically conducts a survey of ordinary Americans, selected in a national sample, in order to determine the social prestige of various professions. Respondents are asked to rate each of 90 occupations (occupations) on a 5-point scale: excellent (best), good, average, slightly worse than average, worst occupation. The list includes almost all occupations from the supreme judge, the minister and the doctor to the plumber and the janitor.
Having calculated the average for each occupation, sociologists received a public assessment of the prestige of each type of work in points. Arranging them in a hierarchical order from the most respected to the most unprestigious, they received a rating, or a scale of professional prestige. Unfortunately, periodic representative surveys of the population about professional prestige have never been conducted in our country. Therefore, we will have to use American data (Table 10).
Table 10
Scale of professional prestige (abbreviated version) *
* Hess B., Markson E., Stein P. sociology. N.Y., 1991. P. 179.
Note: the scale has from 100 (the highest score) to 1 (the lowest score) points. The second column "points" shows the average score received by this type of occupation in the sample.
Comparison of data for different years(1949, 1964, 1972, 1982) shows the persistence of the prestige scale. The same types of occupations enjoyed the greatest, average and least prestige in these years. Lawyer, doctor, teacher, scientist, banker, pilot, engineer received invariably high marks. Their position on the scale changed slightly: the doctor in 1964 was in second place, and in 1982 - in first place, the minister, respectively, occupied 10th and 11th places.
If the upper part of the scale is occupied by representatives of creative, intellectual labor, then the lower part is occupied by representatives of predominantly physical unskilled: a driver, a welder, a carpenter, a plumber, a janitor. They have the least status respect. People occupying the same positions on the four dimensions of stratification constitute one stratum.
Within the framework of sociological knowledge, the study of the position of the individual in society, that is, the social position of the individual, which is defined by the concept of "social status of the individual", is of great importance.The social status (from Latin status - position, state) of a person is the position of a person in society, which he occupies in accordance with his age, gender, origin, profession, marital status.
In sociology, the following types of social statuses of the individual are distinguished.
Social status - the position of a person in society, which he occupies as a representative of a large social group in relations with other groups;
- personal status - the position of an individual in a small group, depending on how its members evaluate him in accordance with his personal qualities.
Statuses determined by the time frame, the impact on the life of the individual as a whole:
The main status determines the main thing in a person's life;
Non-core status affects the details of a person's behavior.
Statuses acquired or not acquired as a result of free choice:
Prescribed status - a social position that is prescribed in advance to an individual by society, regardless of the merits of the individual;
- mixed status has the features of prescribed and achieved statuses;
- the achieved status is acquired as a result of free choice, personal efforts and is under the control of a person.
Any person occupies several positions, as he participates in many groups and organizations, and, accordingly, he is characterized by a status set.
Status set - the totality of all statuses occupied by a given individual.
There is a certain hierarchy of statuses: intergroup - takes place between status groups; intragroup - takes place between the statuses of individuals within the same group. The place in the status hierarchy is called the status rank.
There are the following types of status ranks:
Tall,
- average,
- short.
Contradictions in the intergroup and intragroup hierarchies are manifested in the divergence of statuses, which occurs under two circumstances:
When an individual has a high status rank in one group and a low one in another;
- when the rights and obligations of one status are incompatible with the rights and obligations of another (for example, the status of a deputy is incompatible with the status of a minister).
When characterizing any social status, the following components are distinguished.
Components of social status:
1) Status rights and obligations - determine what the holder of this status can do and what he must do.
2) Status range - the established framework within which the status rights and obligations of the individual are exercised.
3) Status symbols - external insignia that allow you to distinguish between carriers of different statuses (servicemen wear uniforms, each estate and class has its own style of clothing and its own attributes).
4) Status image (image) - a set of ideas about how an individual should look and behave in accordance with his status.
5) Status identification - determination of the degree of compliance of the individual with his status.
The individual not only has a certain social status, he is constantly evaluated by other people, groups and the society in which he lives. This finds its expression in the concepts of "prestige" and "authority".
Prestige - an assessment by society of the significance of certain positions occupied by individuals.
The prestige of a particular status is formed under the influence of two factors: the real usefulness of those social functions that a person performs and the value system characteristic of a given society.
Some traits that affect a person's social position are objective in nature, that is, they do not depend on his desires (nationality, gender, origin, etc.). But the main thing that determines the social status, social position, authority and prestige of an individual is education, qualifications and other personal and socially significant qualities.
The significance of social statuses is expressed in the fact that they determine the content and nature of social relations; act as structural elements of the social organization of society, providing social ties between the subjects of public relations.
Society not only forms social statuses, but also creates mechanisms for their reproduction, regulating the distribution of individuals in certain social positions. The ratio of different statuses in - an essential characteristic of society, its social and political organization.
Family social status
Of all the problems facing the modern family, for a social educator the most important is the problem of family adaptation in society. The main characteristic of the adaptation process is the social status, i.e. the state of the family in the process of its adaptation in society.Considering the family as an integral systemic entity in the process of social adaptation involves an analysis of a number of its structural and functional characteristics, as well as an analysis of the individual characteristics of family members.
The following structural characteristics of the family are important for a social pedagogue:
The presence of marriage partners (full, formally complete, incomplete);
family life cycle stage (young, mature, elderly);
the procedure for concluding a marriage (primary, repeated);
the number of generations in the family (one or more generations);
number of children (large, small).
These characteristics contain both the resource potential of the family (material, educational, etc.) and potential factors of social risk. For example, remarriage makes up for lost marital and child-parent ties, but can cause negative trends in the state of the psychological climate of the family and in the upbringing of children; the complex composition of the family, on the one hand, creates a more diverse picture of role interactions, which means a wider field of socialization of the child, on the other hand, in conditions of a shortage of housing, forced cohabitation of several generations can cause increased conflict in the family, etc.
In addition to the structural and functional characteristics that reflect the state of the family as a whole, the individual characteristics of its members are also important for socio-pedagogical activities. These include socio-demographic, physiological, psychological, pathological habits of adult family members, as well as the characteristics of the child: age, level of physical, mental, speech development in accordance with the age of the child; interests, abilities; educational institution which he visits; success in communication and learning; the presence of behavioral deviations, pathological habits, speech and mental disorders.
The combination of individual characteristics of family members with its structural and functional parameters develops into a complex characteristic - the status of the family.
Scientists have shown that a family can have at least 4 statuses:
Socio-economic,
- socio-psychological,
sociocultural,
- situational and role-playing.
The listed statuses characterize the state of the family, its position in a certain sphere of life at a particular moment in time, i.e., they represent a cut of a certain state of the family in the continuous process of its adaptation in society.
The first component of the social adaptation of the family is the financial situation of the family. To assess the material well-being of a family, which consists of financial and property security, several quantitative and qualitative criteria are needed: the level of income of the family, its living conditions, the subject environment, as well as the socio-demographic characteristics of its members, which constitutes the socio-economic status of the family.
If the level of family income, as well as the quality of housing conditions, is below the established norms (subsistence level, etc.), as a result of which the family cannot satisfy the most urgent needs for food, clothing, housing, then such a family is considered poor, its socio-economic status is low.
If the material well-being of the family corresponds to the minimum, i.e. the family copes with meeting the basic needs of life support, but experiences a shortage of material resources to meet leisure, educational and other social needs, then such a family is considered low-income, its socio-economic status is average.
A high level of income and quality of housing conditions (2 or more times higher than social norms), which allows not only to satisfy the basic needs of life support, but also to enjoy various types services, indicates that the family is financially secure, has a high socio-economic status.
The second component of the family's social adaptation is its psychological climate - a more or less stable emotional mood that develops as a result of the moods of family members, their emotional experiences, relationships to each other, to other people, to work, to surrounding events.
In order to know and be able to assess the state of the psychological climate of the family, or in other words, its socio-psychological status, it is advisable to divide all relationships into separate areas according to the principle of the subjects participating in them: marital, child-parental and relationships with the immediate environment.
As indicators of the state of the psychological climate of the family, the following are distinguished: the degree of emotional comfort, the level of anxiety, the degree of mutual understanding, respect, support, help, empathy and mutual influence; place of leisure (in the family or outside it), the openness of the family in relationships with the immediate environment.
Favorable are relations built on the principles of equality and cooperation, respect for the rights of the individual, characterized by mutual affection, emotional closeness, satisfaction of each family member with the quality of these relations; in this case, the socio-psychological status of the family is assessed as high.
Social statuses and roles
A person daily interacts with different people and social groups. It rarely happens when he fully interacts only with members of one group, for example, a family, but at the same time he can also be a member of a labor collective, public organizations, etc. Entering many social groups at the same time, he occupies in each of them a corresponding relationship with other members of the group. To analyze the degree of inclusion of an individual in various groups, as well as the positions that he occupies in each of them, the concepts of social status and are used.Status (from lat. status - position, state) - position.
Social status is usually defined as the position of an individual or group in a social system that has features specific to that system. Each social status has a certain prestige.
All social statuses can be divided into two main types: those that are assigned to the individual by society or a group, regardless of his abilities and efforts, and those that the individual achieves through his own efforts.
There is a wide range of statuses: prescribed, attainable, mixed, personal, professional, economic, political, demographic, religious, and consanguineous, which fall into a variety of basic statuses.
In addition to them, there are a huge number of episodic, non-main statuses. These are the statuses of a pedestrian, a passer-by, a patient, a witness, a participant in a demonstration, a strike or a crowd, a reader, a listener, a TV viewer, etc. As a rule, these are temporary states. The rights and obligations of holders of such statuses are often not registered in any way. They are generally difficult to determine, say, a passerby. But they are, although they affect not the main, but the secondary features of behavior, thinking and feeling. So, the status of a professor determines a lot in the life of a given person. And his temporary status as a passer-by or a patient? Of course not.
So, a person has basic (determining his life activity) and non-basic (affecting the details of behavior) statuses. The first are significantly different from the second.
Behind each status - permanent or temporary, basic or non-basic - there is a special social group or social category. Catholics, conservatives, engineers (basic statuses) form real groups. For example, patients, pedestrians (non-basic statuses) form nominal groups or statistical categories. As a rule, carriers of non-basic statuses do not coordinate their behavior with each other and do not interact.
People have many statuses and belong to many social groups, the prestige of which in society is not the same: businessmen are valued above plumbers or laborers; men have more social "weight" than women; belonging to a titular ethnic group in a state is not the same as belonging to a national minority, etc.
Over time, public opinion is developed, transmitted, supported, but, as a rule, no documents register a hierarchy of statuses and social groups, where some are valued and respected more than others.
A place in such an invisible hierarchy is called a rank, which can be high, medium or low. Hierarchy can exist between groups within the same society (intergroup) and between individuals within the same group (intragroup). And the place of a person in them is also expressed by the term "rank".
The mismatch of statuses causes a contradiction in the intergroup and intragroup hierarchy, which arises under two circumstances:
1. when an individual occupies a high rank in one group, and a low rank in the second;
2. when the rights and obligations of the status of one person contradict or interfere with the fulfillment of the rights and obligations of another.
A highly paid official (high professional rank) will most likely also have a high family rank as a person who ensures the family's material well-being. But it does not automatically follow from this that he will have high ranks in other groups - among friends, relatives, colleagues.
Although statuses enter into social relations not directly, but only indirectly (through their carriers), they mainly determine the content and nature of social relations.
A person looks at the world and treats other people in accordance with his status. The poor despise the rich, and the rich despise the poor. Dog owners do not understand people who love cleanliness and order on lawns. A professional investigator, albeit unconsciously, divides people into potential criminals, law-abiding and witnesses. A Russian is more likely to show solidarity with a Russian than with a Jew or a Tatar, and vice versa.
Political, religious, demographic, economic, professional statuses of a person determine the intensity, duration, direction and content of people's social relations.
Role (French role) - an image embodied by an actor.
A social role is the behavior expected of someone who has a certain social status. Social roles are a set of requirements imposed on an individual by society, as well as actions that a person who occupies a given status in the social system must perform. A person can have many roles.
The status of children is usually subordinate to adults, and children are expected to be respectful towards the latter. The status of soldiers is different from that of civilians; the role of soldiers is associated with risk and fulfillment of the oath, which cannot be said about other groups of the population. The status of women is different from that of men, and therefore they are expected to behave differently from men. Each individual can have a large number of statuses, and others have the right to expect him to perform roles in accordance with these statuses. In this sense, status and role are two sides of the same phenomenon: if status is a set of rights, privileges and duties, then a role is an action within this set of rights and duties.
The social role consists of:
From role expectation (expectation) and
performance of this role (game).
Social roles can be institutionalized and conventional:
Institutionalized: the institution of marriage, family (social roles of mother, daughter, wife),
Conventional: accepted by agreement (a person may refuse to accept them).
Cultural norms are acquired mainly through role training. For example, a person who masters the role of a military man joins the customs, moral norms and laws that are characteristic of the status of this role. Only a few norms are accepted by all members of society, the adoption of most norms depends on the status of a particular person. What is acceptable for one status is unacceptable for another. Thus, socialization as a process of learning the generally accepted ways and methods of action and interaction is the most important process of learning role-playing behavior, as a result of which the individual really becomes part of society.
Consider some definitions of social role:
Fixing a separate position occupied by this or that individual in the system of social relations;
a function, a normatively approved pattern of behavior expected from everyone holding a given position;
a socially necessary type of activity and a way of behavior of the individual, which bear the seal of public assessment (approval, condemnation, etc.);
behavior of a person in accordance with his social status;
a generalized way of performing a certain social function, when certain actions are expected from a person;
stable stereotype of behavior in certain social situations;
a set of objective and subjective expectations (expectations) derived from the socio-political, economic or any other structure of society;
the social function of the individual, corresponding to the accepted ideas of people, depending on their status or position in society, in the system of interpersonal relations;
the system of expectations existing in society regarding the behavior of an individual occupying a certain position in his interaction with other individuals;
a system of specific expectations in relation to himself of an individual occupying a certain position, i.e., how he represents a model of his own behavior in interaction with other individuals;
open, observable behavior of an individual occupying a certain position;
an idea of the prescribed pattern of behavior that is expected and required of a person in a given situation;
prescribed actions characteristic of those who occupy a certain social position;
a set of norms that determine how a person of a given social position should behave.
Thus, the social role is interpreted as an expectation, type of activity, behavior, representation, stereotype, social function, and even a set of norms. We consider the social role as a function of the social status of the individual, implemented at the level of expectations, norms and sanctions in the social experience of a particular person.
The types of social roles are determined by the variety of social groups, activities and relationships in which the individual is included. Depending on social relations, social and interpersonal social roles are distinguished.
Social roles are associated with social status, profession or type of activity (teacher, pupil, student, seller). These are standardized impersonal roles based on rights and obligations, regardless of who fills these roles. Allocate socio-demographic roles: husband, wife, daughter, son, grandson ... Man and woman are also social roles, biologically predetermined and involving specific ways of behavior, enshrined in social norms and customs.
Interpersonal roles are associated with interpersonal relationships that are regulated on an emotional level (leader, offended, neglected, family idol, loved one, etc.).
In life, in interpersonal relations, each person acts in some kind of dominant social role, a kind of social role as the most typical individual image familiar to others. It is extremely difficult to change the habitual image both for the person himself and for the perception of the people around him. The longer the group exists, the more familiar the dominant social roles of each member of the group become for others and the more difficult it is to change the stereotype of behavior familiar to others.
The main characteristics of the social role are highlighted by the American sociologist Talcott Parsons.
He suggested the following four characteristics of any role.
1. By scale. Some roles may be strictly limited, while others may be blurred.
2. According to the method of receipt. Roles are divided into prescribed and conquered (they are also called achieved).
3. According to the degree of formalization. Activities can proceed both within strictly established limits, and arbitrarily.
4. By types of motivation. The motivation can be personal profit, public good, etc.
The scale of the role depends on the range of interpersonal relationships. The larger the range, the larger the scale. So, for example, the social roles of spouses have a very large scale, since a wide range of relationships is established between husband and wife. On the one hand, these are interpersonal relationships based on a variety of feelings and emotions; on the other hand, relations are regulated by normative acts and in a certain sense are formal. The participants in this social interaction are interested in the most diverse aspects of each other's lives, their relationships are practically unlimited. In other cases, when the relationship is strictly defined by social roles (for example, the relationship of the seller and the buyer), the interaction can be carried out only on a specific occasion (in this case, purchases). Here the scope of the role is reduced to a narrow range of specific issues and is small.
How a role is acquired depends on how unavoidable the role is for the person. So, the roles of a young man, an old man, a man, a woman are automatically determined by the age and sex of a person and do not require much effort to acquire them. There can only be a problem of matching one's role, which already exists as a given. Other roles are achieved or even won in the course of a person's life and as a result of purposeful special efforts. For example, the role of a student, researcher, professor, etc. These are almost all roles associated with the profession and any achievements of a person.
Formalization as a descriptive characteristic of a social role is determined by the specifics of interpersonal relations of the bearer of this role. Some roles involve the establishment of only formal relations between people with strict regulation of the rules of conduct; others, on the contrary, are only informal; still others may combine both formal and informal relationships. Obviously, the relationship of a traffic police representative with a violator of traffic rules should be determined by formal rules, and relationships between close people should be determined by feelings. Formal relationships are often accompanied by informal ones, in which emotionality is manifested, because a person, perceiving and evaluating another, shows sympathy or antipathy towards him. This happens when people interact for a while and the relationship becomes relatively stable.
Motivation depends on the needs and motives of a person. Different roles are due to different motives. Parents, caring for the welfare of their child, are guided, first of all, by a feeling of love and care; the leader works in the name of the cause, etc.
The influence of the social role on the development of the individual is quite large. The development of personality is facilitated by its interaction with persons playing a number of roles, as well as its participation in the largest possible role repertoire. The more social roles an individual is able to play, the more adapted to life he is. Thus, the process of personality development often acts as the dynamics of mastering social roles.
Equally important to any society is the prescribing of roles according to age. The adaptation of individuals to constantly changing ages and age statuses is an eternal problem. The individual does not have time to adapt to one age, as another one immediately approaches, with new statuses and new roles. As soon as a young man begins to cope with embarrassment and complexes of youth, he is already on the threshold of maturity; as soon as a person begins to show wisdom and experience, old age comes. Each age period is associated with favorable opportunities for the manifestation of human abilities, moreover, it prescribes new statuses and requirements for learning new roles. At a certain age, an individual may experience problems in adapting to new role status requirements. A child who is said to be older than his years, i.e., has reached the status inherent in the older age category, usually does not fully realize his potential childhood roles, which negatively affects the completeness of his socialization. Often such children feel lonely, flawed. At the same time, immature adult status is a combination of adult status with the attitudes and behaviors of childhood or adolescence. Such a person usually has conflicts in the performance of roles appropriate to her age. These two examples show an unfortunate adjustment to the age statuses prescribed by society.
Learning a new role can go a long way in changing a person. In psychotherapy, there is even an appropriate method of behavior correction - image therapy (image - image). The patient is offered to enter into a new image, to play a role, as in a play. At the same time, the function of responsibility is not borne by the person himself, but by his role, which sets new patterns of behavior. A person is forced to act differently, based on a new role. Despite the conventionality of this method, the effectiveness of its use was quite high, since the subject was given the opportunity to release repressed desires, if not in life, then at least during the game. The sociodramatic approach to the interpretation of human actions is widely known. Life is seen as a drama, each participant in which plays a specific role. Playing roles gives not only a psychotherapeutic, but also a developing effect.
Socio-economic status
Socio-economic status. Status (from Latin status - state, position) means the correlative (higher, equal, lower) position of the individual in the social system and is characterized by a set of rights and obligations. Distinguish between personal and social status. Social status is the position that a person automatically occupies as a representative of a large social group (professional, class, national) in a given social system. Personal status is the position that he occupies in a small or primary group and depending on how he is assessed by his individual qualities. The status of a person in an organization or group is determined by a number of factors such as seniority in the job hierarchy, job title, location and design of the office, education, social talents, awareness and experience. These factors can raise or lower status depending on the values and norms of the group.In groups with different status of participants, communication is usually directed to those who have a higher position, and the information sent to them is more meaningful and less conflicting. A person with a high status takes more time during the discussion of problems and issues in a group: he speaks more, the statements of other members of the group towards him contain less aggressive attacks, a smaller amount of verbal aggression. The status of a group member also affects the degree of trust given to him by other members of the group.
Studies have shown that high-status group members are able to influence group decisions more than low-status group members.
The social status of the group
A social group is one of the main forms of interaction between people, their united social position, associated with the satisfaction of the needs of the individuals occupying it, in the implementation of joint actions.The definition of a social group includes four main points:
Social interaction - that is, communicative interaction carried out with the help of sign systems (codes);
- stigmatization - sticking labels by which we recognize membership in a group that has taken shape in social gestaltism (an image in the mass consciousness) - the lifestyle of this group;
- identification - identification by an individual with a given group through the opposition we - others with the establishment of social boundaries and filters at the input-output (and the implementation of reflective monitoring, according to E. Giddens);
- habitualization - that is, habituation (according to P. Bourdieu), the development by an individual of a given social position and the formation of attitudes, stereotypes inherent in this group.
The signs by which membership in a group is determined and which underlie identification may or may not coincide with each other.
Group classification:
By number:
Large (class, nation);
- Small (family);
By direct relationship:
Conditional;
- Real;
- Small;
- Large;
- Official;
- Not official;
- Resistant;
- situational;
- Organized;
- Natural;
- Contact;
- Non-contact.
There are permanent, temporary, occasional or sporadic groups. Some groups are created for a long existence and strive for this (educational institutions). These are the groups that don't want to disappear. Other groups are doomed to a short existence (tourists). Some groups are free, others are mandatory. Thus, when we were born, we did not choose a family, an ethnic group or a nation, other groups that we join at will.
Formal groups are characterized by an organized structure. Social relations here are impersonal (different parties). In an informal group, there are personal, social relationships that are carried out in roles determined by the internal environment, sympathies (these are friends, buddies, “club of interests”).
The primary or limited group is the basis for a person - it is a family. In it there is a process of bodybuilding. Secondary groups are large in size and the relationships in them are formalized. Example: A basketball club with multiple teams is a secondary group. And one team is the primary group.
Directly general qualities of groups:
1. Interactivity - a measure of unity, cohesion, commonality of group members with each other (lack of interactivity - disunity, disintegration).
2. The microclimate determines the well-being of each person in the group, its satisfaction with the group, the comfort of being in it.
3. Reference - the degree of acceptance by the members of the group of group standards.
4. Leadership - the degree of the leading influence of certain members of the group on the group as a whole in the direction of the implementation of group tasks.
5. Intragroup activity - a measure of the activation of the group's constituent personalities.
6. Intergroup activity - the degree of influence of this group on other groups.
In addition to these qualities, the following are also considered:
The orientation of the group is the social value of the goals adopted by it, the motives of activity, value orientations and group norms;
- organization - the real ability of the group to self-government;
- emotionality - interpersonal relationships of an emotional nature, the prevailing emotional mood of the group;
- intellectual communication - the nature of interpersonal perception and the establishment of mutual understanding, finding a common language;
- strong-willed communication - the ability of the group to withstand difficulties and obstacles, its reliability in extreme situations.
The social status of a person
Each person is a member of various social groups and, accordingly, the owner of many different statuses. The whole set of human statuses is called a status set. The status that the person himself or those around him consider to be the main one is called the main status. This is usually professional or family status, or status in the group where the person has achieved the greatest.Statuses are divided into prescribed (obtained by virtue of birth) and achieved (which are acquired purposefully). The freer the society, the less important are the statuses prescribed and the more important are the achieved ones.
A person can have different statuses. For example, his status set may be as follows: male, unmarried, candidate of technical sciences, computer programming specialist, Russian, city dweller, Orthodox, etc. A number of statuses (Russian, male) were received by him from birth - these are prescribed statuses. A number of other statuses (candidate of sciences, programmer) he acquired, having made certain efforts for this, these are achieved statuses. Suppose this person identifies himself primarily as a programmer; hence, being a programmer is his main status.
The concept of status is usually associated with the concept of prestige.
Social prestige is a public assessment of the significance of the position that a person occupies in the social structure.
The higher the prestige of a person's social position, the higher his social status is estimated. For example, the professions of an economist or a lawyer are considered prestigious; education received in a good educational institution; high post; a specific place of residence (capital, city center). If they talk about the high significance not of a social position, but of a specific person and his personal qualities, in this case they mean not prestige, but authority.
The social status of the individual
In a set of statuses, there is always a main one (the most characteristic for a given individual, according to which he is distinguished by others or with whom he is identified). The main status determines the way of life, the circle of acquaintances, the manner of behavior.The hierarchy and prestige of statuses depend on the real significance of certain functions for the development of society, the reproduction of its basic structures, and on the system of values, the scale of preferences taken into account in a given culture when "weighing" social functions.
The social status of a person is made up of the amount of income, social prestige, level of education and political influence. Status is the basic element of social structure. As structure elements, statuses are empty cells. The people who fill them bring variety and mobility. The status is furnished with honors, symbols and privileges corresponding to its rank. The higher the rank, the more privileges. Status requires from a person socially approved behavior, the realization of certain rights and obligations, adequate role behavior, and finally, identification, that is, psychological identification of oneself with one's status. In general, when it comes to ranking statuses, what is meant, first of all, is the prestige of the functions assigned to a given status. Prestige, in fact, is a hierarchy of statuses shared by society and enshrined in culture, in public opinion. The social prestige of status plays a huge role in the distribution of social desires, plans, and energy (especially among young people). In this zone, special social tension is created, the most active, prepared, ambitious members of society are concentrated. And in this regard, the prestige of a particular status has a significant impact on the perception itself, the assertion of one's "I". Education in the modern world plays an integrative role in the formation of social communities, the formation of an interacting personality. Education is the leading motive in every activity. Thanks to investments in quality education significantly increases the power of the country's economy.Education prepares ready-made patterns of behavior for mankind and determines the possibility of their development.
It is thanks to education that the exchange of knowledge, information, and, consequently, opportunities between the strata of society, between teams, states, people is carried out. The position in society predetermines the main status, which, as a rule, is based on the position, profession. The profession serves as the most used, cumulative, integrative indicator of a status position - the type of work determines such "status resources" of a person as authority, prestige, power. Of course, the status of the individual associated with work, profession is of particular importance. Although it should be noted that the status hierarchy may change. In the 1990s, a person, ownership of property and financial resources, the opportunity to “live beautifully” began to be put forward as a leading status. In this situation, not qualifications, not skill, not creativity, but the possession of real estate and a bank account became the goal of a significant part of young people, who began to consider obtaining a specialty as an element or step in achieving significant material prosperity. In this regard, it should be noted the importance of the real starting position of the individual, which affects his assessment of society, gives a certain point of view on the world, which largely determines further behavior. People from families with different social statuses have unequal conditions of socialization, unequal opportunities for education.
Socio-demographic status
The purpose of marketing is to meet the needs and requirements of consumers. Consumer behavior as a field of marketing studies the process of selecting or acquiring and disposing of goods, services, ideas by individual buyers, groups and organizations to satisfy their needs and desires. The ability to understand and manage the behavior of consumers, "to recognize the buyer by sight" is achieved very difficult. Often, the buyer simply does not realize the motives for making their purchase.Understanding how and why consumers shop is a direct benefit for any company. Conversely, misunderstanding the motivations and preferences of customers can be costly. The study of consumer behavior allows you to develop new products, change their characteristics, determine prices, distribution channels, advertising messages, etc.
According to F. Kotler's model of marketing incentives and customer response, marketing incentives and incentive factors environment affect the mind of the buyer, and a specific purchase decision is determined by the characteristics of the individual and the decision-making process. The task of the marketing specialist is to understand what happens in the mind of the consumer between the moment of exposure to external stimuli and the decision to purchase.
Most environmental factors (culture, subculture, belonging to a certain social class, family) operate over a long period of a person's life and significantly affect the formation of the consumer's personality. As a result, the consumer has established values and norms of behavior that affect the choice of brands and types of goods.
Types of social statuses
Types of social statuses:1) congenital and ascribed status - acquired by a person automatically at birth and does not depend on the efforts and aspirations of a person (nationality, gender, race, membership in the royal family, etc., as well as statuses according to the kinship system - son, daughter, brother, sister.);
2) assigned, but not inborn statuses are acquired due to a combination of certain circumstances, and not according to the personal will of the individual, for example, due to marriage (mother-in-law, son-in-law, daughter-in-law, sister-in-law, etc.);
3) achieved status - acquired through the efforts of the person himself with the help of various social groups.
Achieved statuses are divided into determined ones:
A) position (for example, director, manager);
b) titles (general, people's artist, honored teacher, etc.);
c) academic degree (doctor of science, professor);
d) professional affiliation (People's Artist of Russia or Honored Master of Sports);
4) the main statuses are fairly constant statuses (born, attributed, achieved, personal);
5) non-basic statuses due to a short-term situation (passer-by, patient, witness, spectator).
A person cannot be completely deprived of a social status or several statuses, in the case when he leaves one of them, he will necessarily find himself in another.
Each person has several statuses in relation to different groups (director (by position), husband (for wife), father (for children), son (for parents), etc.). These statuses are not equal. The main social status is usually a position in society, which is based on position and profession. Due to this status, the "value resources" of a person, such as wealth, prestige, power, are usually determined.
The initial status of an individual affects his assessment in society, forms a point of view on the world, which largely determines his future behavior. People with different initial social statuses have unequal conditions of socialization.
Social statuses are reflected in clothes, jargon, manners, as well as in attitudes, value orientations, and motives.
Social status can rise or fall, which implies an adequate change in behavior. If this does not happen, there is an internal personal conflict.
The social status of the worker
1) the position occupied by the employee in the structure of social relations in the organization;2) a way of identifying an employee with the social structure of the organization (see Structure of the organization).
In accordance with the accepted classification of a social organization (see Social organization), formal (official) and informal status of an employee are distinguished into formal and informal (see: Formal (official) organization; informal organization). Formal status is a characteristic of the employee's place in the structure of formal relations. It means an official (formally fixed) role position, separated from a specific employee and reflected in regulatory documents, i.e. official and (or) professional. Occupation by an employee of this role position automatically implies that he is endowed with a certain formal status. Informal status characterizes the place of an employee in the system of interpersonal informal relations that arise in the process and about the activity (or in the process, but not about this activity)) and implemented at the level of the contact target group (see Target group). Status in this case is a characteristic of the worker. It is based on the recognition (non-recognition) by colleagues of his specific place in the system (primarily in the hierarchy) of these relations, as well as his certain qualities that are significant for the group. It is the presence and recognition by the group of these qualities that determine the authority of the employee among colleagues. The structure of interpersonal relations is dynamic and inseparable from the specific individuals who interact.
Within the framework of the prevailing ideas about the formal S. R. in O., two essentially different points of view can be distinguished. The first point of view, expressed by J. Moreno and T. Parsons (“status roles”), is more traditional: formal status means, first of all, the position occupied by an employee in the structure of vertical power, hierarchical relations (see: Hierarchy; Power in organizations). It acts as a characteristic that predetermines what in the classical tradition was called the formal authority of the worker (see Authority in the organization). Such a point of view on S. R. in O. in the domestic tradition is vividly represented in the works of A. I. Prigogine, who identifies the official position of an employee with the concept of “formal status”, and uses the concept of “function” to characterize the position in horizontal relations.
According to the second point of view on S. R. in O., expressed by R. Linton and developed in modern theory social roles (theory of the theater), formal status is considered, firstly, as a characteristic of the social structure, and not of the individual in the organization; secondly, it is described exclusively as a horizontal (functional) characteristic of the employee's place in the system of formal relations. Formal status as a characteristic of the social structure fixes the professional affiliation of the employee, as well as the prescribed rights and obligations arising from it.
Therefore, any employee in the organization has a formal status. S. R. in O. is considered in a number of such variables as: actor (active subject of activity); personality (a person having a status); role (behavior dictated by status); expectations, or expectations placed on the actor in the process of playing the role by various instances and groups of business interaction. They are interpreted and taken into account to varying degrees by the actor in the performance of the role: the expectations prescribed by the scenario are the expectations set by the formal structure; expectations of other actors - expectations of work colleagues, other professionals; expectations of the audience - the expectations of consumers of services (head, clients). This point of view is the most adequate to the mechanism of functioning of modern administrative organizations in the West.
In this case, the leader is no longer perceived as a person with a special status. His powers are only one of a number of prescribed functions, fixed by a formal structure along with others, and his activity itself is only one of the varieties. professional activity In the organisation. Such an understanding of the formal status reflects the tendencies characteristic of Western culture to build an organization on the principles of high specialization and professionalization of activities, as well as a specific view of the nature of power. Being to a certain extent adequate to the logic of building an organization in the American and Western European reality, this point of view on the S.R. O. can hardly be considered as universal and suitable for describing organizational relations outside this culture.
Increasing social status
Do you dream of standing out among others, but you understand that for this you need to increase your social significance? Do you want to rise to the heights of success, but you do not have enough social status? I can offer you the most effective technology, the daily use of which will lead you to amazing success. The technology is very simple, but if you start using it in your life, the result will stun you.As a rule, a high social status is found in those who are perceived in conjunction with successful people, enterprises, firms. Also, a high social status is acquired when your name appears in event plots. To make it clear what we are talking about, I will give a simple example - when an episode about a famous person appears in a news program, immediately after which they show an event in which you are the main character, the audience - for the most part, will perceive you as an authoritative and successful person.
For this technique to work effectively, it is best to find a person who has already achieved success in a certain segment and become his interviewer. In this case, the audience will perceive you and your interlocutor as people of the same level. If, on the basis of the interview, you can publish a message in the media, then the audience will certainly assign you the laurels of a successful person and increase your status. It is possible to prepare information for the press on your own, after which you need to place it on sites specially designed for this, as well as publish it on news sites and other Internet resources around the world.
Honesty first!
An important clarification - do not fake, and tell about yourself what is not really there. The truth, in the end, always comes out, so do not invent your statuses. It is much easier and much more important to become a person, interesting and authoritative in your niche, than to lead anyone by the nose. In addition, an honest path will bring you not only large quantity recognition, but also more money. The charisma, influence and significance of the person you interview will do their job and raise your social significance.
Social professional status
Professional competence is defined as a certain confirmed right to belong to a certain professional group of workers, recognized by the social system as a whole and by representatives of not only a specific professional group, but also other social and professional groups.This understanding is based on the interpretation of the concept of "competence" given in encyclopedic dictionary. In addition, professional competence determines the scope of competencies, the terms of reference in the field of professional activity. In a narrower sense, professional competence is understood as a range of issues in which the subject has knowledge, experience and the totality of which reflects the socio-professional status and professional qualifications, as well as certain personal, individual characteristics (abilities) or qualities that provide the possibility of implementing a certain professional activity.
Thus, professional competence can be considered as a set of professional competences. Each competence includes a theoretical understanding of the object of influence (interaction) and a way of working with this object. Personal professionally significant abilities act as specific abilities (along with general abilities). Specific abilities are some kind of matrix structures that are filled in the process of professional activity of continuous professional education with more and more adequate theoretical ideas about the objects of influence (interaction) and ways of working with them. This is what ensures the growth of professional competence.
professional qualification;
socio-professional status;
professionally significant personality traits.
This understanding allows us to expand the idea of professional competence.
Professional competence also determines the scope of competencies, the terms of reference of a medical worker in the social sphere, especially in that part of it that is directly adjacent to the professional sphere itself. Based on this, professional competence should include its social aspect, which reflects the characteristics of the profession of a medical worker as a representative of a group of professions in the social sphere.
The main relationships between the components of the systemic concept of professional competence can be described as follows.
However, in order to assess professional competence, it is necessary, first of all, to describe the entire set of concepts that describe the space of this term, as well as their interrelationships and interdependencies.
All this will make it possible to objectively assess the professional competence of a medical worker within the framework of continuous professional education.
Let us dwell on the characteristics of the socio-professional status. Its evaluation must be considered as a kind of identification of a specialist in relation to the social system, which determines his place and role in it. The external aspect of the activity of a medical worker reflects the purely specificity of the profession, which is provided exclusively by the professional qualifications of the worker and his professionally significant personal characteristics.
The professional component of the socio-professional status is a reflection of the idea of professional qualifications in the social sphere. In other words, this aspect reflects the fact how important for the social sphere are the products created by a medical worker in professional activity. The concept of the social aspect of professional status fixes a measure of the correspondence between the assessment of the professional qualifications of a medical worker and the assessment of the social significance of products created in his activity.
For example, there are a number of situations where there is undoubtedly a high level of professional qualifications, and the social assessment of the employee's activity (ethical, moral, moral, etc.) by representatives of the social sphere is generally ambiguous or even negative.
Further, it is also necessary to single out the concept of the actual social status of a medical worker in a professional environment. This component shows what place a medical worker occupies as a subject of certain systems of social relations in a specific professional environment and fixes the degree of conformity of assessments of products of professional activity from various social and professional status positions (colleagues, managers, subordinates).
So, socio-professional status characterizes the results of assessment: compliance with the requirements for professional activity within the professional sphere and compliance with the requirements of the social system.
Now let's focus on the characteristics of professional qualifications. Qualification is provided by the initial or corrected level of mastery of the content of professional activity, i.e. theoretical ideas about it and ways to implement it. Professional qualification should be considered as theoretical and practical readiness for activity and productivity of this activity. As a result of professional activity, socially and professionally significant products are created.
In the encyclopedic dictionary, the term "qualification" is described as:
1) determining the quality of something, someone; assessment;
2) the degree of suitability, the level of preparedness of a person for a particular profession or job.
This confirms the need to include in the description of the term "qualification" the above concepts - "level of preparedness" and "definition (assessment) of the qualities of something, someone". This allows us to understand by qualification: the readiness of an employee to create products of professional activity, as well as the evaluation of the qualities of these products (tangible and intangible, object and subject entities, etc.) in comparison with the required, desired or reference ones. At the same time, speaking of reference products, we mean products that are recognized as the most significant and effective for the social system.
Thus, the following components can be distinguished in professional qualification:
Preparedness (theoretical, practical, etc.);
productivity, which is described through professionally and socially significant products created by the subject in the process of activity.
Depending on the system-forming features, standardized objects, subject entities can act as products of activity. It is important that the analysis is carried out not on an isolated activity, but on the products produced by the subject in the activity, because it is unlawful to evaluate the activity in isolation from its subject, just as it is unlawful to evaluate the subject outside the activity carried out by him and the products of activity created.
It can be added to the above that the traditional approach proposes to first give a description and definition of professional activity. This definition and description of the totality of features is, as it were, absolutized, although our real ideas about activity will always be relative. Therefore, it is also important to emphasize that our ideas about activity are subjected to analysis and their comparison takes place relative to the generalized idea of it that is available in the professional public consciousness. And, secondly, since we do not have the opportunity, most often, to evaluate the activity directly (for example, being present at professional actions), then, first of all, its products, which act as original images of this activity, are subject to evaluation. It follows from this that in order to evaluate the products of professional activity, it is necessary to conduct their preliminary analysis in order to assign them to a certain type, type, class, group, etc.
When evaluating the products of professional activity, it is also necessary to keep in mind that they can and should reflect the professional and personal qualities of the subject of professional activity. In this regard, it seems appropriate to characterize personal professionally significant features as a component of professional activity.
A specific feature of the professional activity of a medical worker is the high involvement of the individual in professional activities, i.e. the personal characteristics of the employee act as a tool of his professional activity. Therefore, it is legitimate to consider as a product of professional activity both external, realized by the individual, but alienated manifestations of professional activity, and the degree of expression of certain individual characteristics of the employee's personality in the process of professional influence and interaction.
Thus, personal professionally significant qualities manifest themselves in the products of professional activity and allow them to be characterized as a certain individual style of activity.
Evaluation of created products can be made based on the following principles:
The more important the created product is for the social system, the higher the social status of its creator;
the more important the created product is for the professional sphere, the higher the professional status of its creator.
The above principles can be used as the basis for the classification (typology) of products of professional activity.
Thus, it is possible to give a description of typical products and their main features. Depending on the localization of primary importance and the demand for the product of professional activity, one can focus on social or professional components of competence.
In conclusion, it should be noted that the degree of expression of personal professionally significant qualities is not necessarily determined by the volume of acquired professional knowledge about the content and methods of professional activity. We want to emphasize that professional education is an important basic component of professional preparedness, but its presence does not necessarily imply a high degree of personal professionally significant qualities. At the same time, the attitude to activity as a system of socially significant, professional and value orientations determines not only the level of activity itself, but also the attitude to professional education as a continuous process.
Social status employee
Civil service reform Russian Federation associated with the definition and consolidation of the social status of civil servants. In general, social status is an indicator of the place of a social group and an individual in the system of social relations.In the Russian Federation, the formation of the public service as a social institution is taking place. In its structure, a special place is occupied by the social status of a civil servant.
The basis for the formation of a modern understanding of the status of a civil servant was the theory of "human relations", "flat structures", "social action", the social state, the civil service as a system of social institutions, the profession of civil servants as a managerial activity.
The concept of "social status" (from Latin status - position, state) means the position occupied by an individual (group) in society or its subsystem. In the sociological sense of the word, this concept was first used by the English historian G.D. Maine. Unlike the concept of "social position", which expresses the belonging of an individual to a group, community, society as a whole, the historian included in the concept of "status" an assessment by the individual (group) of his place in society in comparison with the position of other people, as well as an assessment of the individual ( groups) from society. This is expressed in certain quantitative and qualitative indicators (, bonuses, awards, titles, privileges, etc.). At the same time, G.D. Maine distinguished between the status prescribed (inherited, depending on social position) and achieved (determined by individual qualities, achievements, merits).
The noted indicators mainly characterize the legal status of a civil servant. As for the social status, it includes not only the legal, but also the organizational, political, economic and moral status of a civil servant. Structurally, such a classification reflects the main content, functions, social roles of civil servants, their position in the civil service as in a system of institutions (professional management, legal, social, organizational, etc.).
In this regard, the methods of structural-functional analysis are of theoretical and practical importance for the study of the social status of a civil servant. They involve taking into account the hierarchical construction of the civil service as an organization, the fact of inequality of its employees in the process of official activities, the professional division of labor, the social differentiation of employees, etc. By the way these social facts correlate in the structure of the civil service, one can judge the nature of public service and non-official relations that dominate the social institution of public service.
Currently, a kind of prescribed status prevails in the civil service of Russia - a rigidly fixed system of standardization, in which transitions from one stratum (group of positions) to another are limited by personal, ethnic and other ties. In this type of civil service, there are few conditions for the realization of the achieved status, the free movement of civil servants through the ranks.
social status sociology
Social status is a set of rights and obligations of a person in relation to other people with other statuses.From this definition it follows that every person has some status that is subject to change. Even within a short period of time, the status can change several times: pedestrian, buyer, child, etc.
All the statuses that a person has in this moment, is called the status set. The status is characterized certain rights and responsibilities. The whole set of statuses forms a certain hierarchical ladder of society. In this aspect, statuses denote the inequality of people. Outside of connection with other people, status cannot be applied to an individual person.
A person has many statuses, but among them the main ones are distinguished. They determine the way of life of a person, his place in society. This group of statuses is associated with a person's activities in the professional sphere.
Not all statuses of a person can be changed. Some are given from birth: gender, nationality, etc. These statuses are called assigned. They used to play a very important role. AT modern society, where social position is not determined from birth and for life, there are only a few assigned statuses: race, nationality, gender.
Most statuses a person achieves throughout his life. Related to the concept of status is the problem of its recognition by others. Sometimes the status ascribed to an individual by society does not coincide with that which he endows himself with. When these statuses coincide, they speak of identity.
Statuses can be classified as social and personal. The concept of personal status is applicable to a small group: friends, relatives. And the place occupied by a person in a large community is a formal status. Formal and social status do not always coincide. This is manifested in respect for a person and his influence in a particular social group. Throughout his life, an individual participates in many social groups and can occupy a different position in them: high, medium, low.
The social status of the student
When analyzing the position of student status, as a rule, emphasis is placed on the marginal, isolation and temporality of this group, which is engaged in activities related to the preparation for qualified mental work. The students are distinguished by their original forms of social activity, which is typical not only for young people, but also for a group of intelligentsia, to replenish which young people are preparing at the university.It is not always taken into account that the student period is a completely independent stage of human life, during which it:
Takes part in activities that today act as personality-forming factors;
- forms an individual development environment;
- establishes a model of a behavioral model in society.
From the characteristics of student status, one can single out a group of acquired, achieved by a person to the present moment of his life and descriptive:
Floor;
- education of parents;
- place of residence before the university.
The division of students by gender has remained almost unchanged for a long period of time. Studies have shown that 43% are boys and 57% girls. It goes without saying that young men predominate in technical universities and there are more girls among future humanities students. The process of feminization of higher education is proceeding steadily. However, there is a situation of constant growth among the majority of women with higher education. And this problem needs to be solved for a long time.
According to statistics in technical universities, the influx of students from their hometown has become greater than before.
On the one hand, their position is much more convenient:
No need to overcome the difficulties of living in a hostel;
- closer connection with the family;
- easier to decide on the future place of residence.
From a social standpoint, this percentage of young people turns out to be less independent and dynamic; their status remains dependent on the position of their parents for a long period of time. And in terms of self-determination through a higher educational institution, the component of personal initiative appears a little later.
Students from small towns and villages usually return to their native places, but at this point in time this can be considered a forced moment. The desire to gain a foothold in more civilized types of settlements today is not supplied with a guarantee of employment. Hence, the increase in the future of the migratory movement of young people, not only because of the need for higher education, but also because of the need to acquire a more stable social position in the future.
The social status of a soldier
Under the rights of a serviceman, we mean the opportunities stipulated by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, established by federal laws, other regulatory legal acts, and protected opportunities for the effective performance of military service.Military personnel, as citizens of the Russian Federation, enjoy the rights and freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the laws of the Russian Federation, subject to certain restrictions, which will be discussed below. At the same time, as noted earlier, for the successful performance of official activities, military personnel are granted special (general) rights that are not associated with specific military or other positions and the performance of special duties.
These include the rights of military personnel:
For the storage, carrying, use and use of weapons in the manner determined by the legislation and general military regulations of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation;
- to familiarize themselves with the documents that define their rights and obligations in their military position, the criteria for assessing the quality of work and the conditions for promotion, as well as the organizational and technical conditions necessary for the performance of their official duties;
- to receive, in accordance with the established procedure, information and materials necessary for the performance of official duties;
- to visit subordinate military organizations in the prescribed manner for the performance of official duties;
- to make decisions and participate in their preparation in accordance with official duties;
- to participate on their own initiative in the competition for filling a vacant military position;
- for promotion, increase in salaries, taking into account the results and length of service, skill level;
- for retraining (retraining) and advanced training at the expense of the relevant budget;
- for pensions, taking into account the length of military service;
- for material support.
Normative legal acts regulating the official activities of military personnel do not directly provide for the right to conduct an official (administrative) investigation at their request to refute information discrediting honor, dignity and business reputation. However, at the request of a serviceman, such a right can be exercised by him by filing a complaint on command in the manner established by the Department of Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, the Disciplinary Regulations of the Armed Forces. A serviceman also has the right to send proposals or statements to a senior commander up to and including the Minister of Defense, to military justice bodies and other bodies of state power and administration (Article 109).
The rights of military personnel to material support and some other rights, also of a material nature, related to their general rights, are designed to indirectly ensure the effectiveness of their activities through the implementation of moral and material incentives. Moreover, they are often understood as benefits designed to compensate military personnel for restrictions on certain general civil rights and freedoms due to the characteristics of military service. Indeed, on the one hand, they are closely intertwined with the individual personal rights of military personnel, and on the other hand, they form an independent subjective right of military personnel to benefits, which are understood as certain advantages provided to citizens in connection with military service, or their full or partial exemption from certain state responsibilities.
In the group of general rights of military personnel, designed to stimulate and compensate for restrictions on individual rights and freedoms in connection with military service, those that are related to:
A) with promotion (career);
b) with state material support, rest;
c) with the right to protection;
d) with benefits;
d) encouragement.
the federal law"On the status of military personnel" names the following rights related to promotion (career):
Occupation of military positions and promotion with promotion in accordance with the professional qualifications obtained, the results achieved in service activities and on a competitive basis;
- raising professional qualifications, taking into account the interests of military service and the serviceman's own choice.
The right of servicemen to material support and rest includes the rights:
For monetary allowance, consisting of a monthly salary in accordance with the position held and a monthly salary in accordance with the assigned military rank, monthly (for example, a percentage allowance for length of service) and other allowances and other additional cash payments (for example, a one-time monetary reward based on the results of training (calendar) year, payments for the initial establishment of a household, etc.). It should be noted that material support is differentiated by the monetary allowance of military personnel, taking into account the peculiarities of serving in certain types of the Armed Forces (Ground Forces, Navy, etc.), special conditions of service, deployment of military formations and other factors, and in-kind support (food, clothing, provision of living quarters);
- for annual basic leave, depending on the period of military service, at a preferential rate, which, at the request of a serviceman, can be granted in installments. Military personnel are also entitled to additional leave: educational, creative, for personal reasons, for illness, and female military personnel for pregnancy and childbirth and childcare leave;
- for medical care for military personnel and members of their families, including after the military personnel retire;
- for pensions for long service and pensions for family members in the event of the death of a serviceman during military service, and in some cases after military service in accordance with the Law of the Russian Federation "On pensions for persons who have completed military service, service in the internal affairs bodies, the State Fire Service, the bodies for the control of the circulation of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, institutions and bodies of the penitentiary system, and their families” No. 4468-1. On pension provision for persons who have served in the military, served in internal affairs bodies, the State Fire Service, bodies for controlling the circulation of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, institutions and bodies of the penitentiary system, and their families: Law of the Russian Federation No. 4468-1;
- for compulsory state in case of harm to health and property during service.
Sometimes there is a contradiction between federal legislation in the field of military personnel and departmental regulations. Let's take an example from judicial practice Military Board Supreme Court Russian Federation.
Officer Vardanyan appealed to the military court of the Krasnoyarsk garrison with a complaint against the actions of the commander of the unit, who refused to pay him 3.5 salaries (calculated for him, his wife and two children) in connection with moving to a new place of residence during the transfer and interest allowances for work with classified documents. The court refused to satisfy Vardanyan's complaint, referring to the article of the order of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation No. 115-93 “On monetary payments to military personnel and persons dismissed from military service in accordance with the Law of the Russian Federation “On the Status of Military Personnel”, according to which the right of a serviceman to receive additional monetary payments , provided for in Article 13, paragraph 3 of the Law of the Russian Federation "On the status of military personnel", is linked directly to the appointment to the post.
In addition, the court, in its decision, indicated that in accordance with the Regulations on the monetary allowance of military personnel (Order of the Ministry of Defense No. 75-78, Art. 331), it is forbidden to make this payment to military personnel who arrived in a unit without appointment, before receiving an appointment order .
For the same reasons, Vardanyan was also denied a bonus for working with secret documents.
The Military Court of the Siberian Military District upheld this decision. In the protest of the Chairman of the Military Collegium, the question was raised of changing the decisions taken on the following grounds.
According to the case file, Vardanyan was sent for further service from the Far Eastern Military District to the Siberian Military District. In this regard, he left his former place of residence, which is documented, and actually moved with his family. Having received an order from the district headquarters, Vardanyan left at the disposal of the commander of a particular unit.
An extract from the order on appointment to a specific position, as indicated in the order, was to be received additionally by the unit. Upon arrival at the unit, in accordance with the order of the commander, Vardanyan was enrolled in the lists of personnel, for all types of allowances and began to receive cases according to his position.
Having registered with the family at the unit, which is also confirmed by the relevant certificate, he began to perform official duties, according to the order in part, and performed them for several months, up to his dismissal from military service on a discrediting basis.
The evidence examined by the court undoubtedly confirms the fact that Vardanyan and his family moved to a new place of residence in connection with a job transfer, which is the basis for an additional payment under paragraph 3 of Art. 13 of the Law of the Russian Federation "On the status of military personnel".
The provisions of the Orders of the Ministry of Defense No. 115-93 and No. 075-78 cited in the decision of the court of first instance contradict the requirements of paragraph 3 of Article 13 of the Law of the Russian Federation “On the Status of Military Personnel”, and the court in such cases, in accordance with Art. 120, part 2, of the Constitution of the Russian Federation should have been guided by the Law, and not by acts that contradicted it. The military board agreed with the protest and changed the court decisions. The refusal of the commander to make an additional payment, provided for in Article 13, paragraph 3 of the Law of the Russian Federation "On the Status of Military Personnel", she recognized as illegal and ordered the commander to pay Vardanyan 3.5 salaries (for him, his wife and two children), based on the amount of maintenance for the moment of actual payment, as well as per diems for all family members for each day of being on the way to a new duty station, in the amount of the rate established by the Government of the Russian Federation for business travelers at the time of actual payment. 13 of the Law of the Russian Federation "On the Status of Servicemen" is the fact that a serviceman and his family move to a new place of residence in connection with a transfer from service.
To protect their rights and legitimate interests, a serviceman may use the right to file a complaint in the order of subordination to a higher official or to a military court to resolve disputes related to military service.
Military personnel are entitled to the following benefits:
Housing benefits consist in the preservation of living space (residential premises) and the right to it, the right to additional living space for certain categories of military personnel, the provision of living space for a 3-month period, the promotion of individual housing construction and other benefits;
- benefits in the field of health care consist of free dispensing of medicines or their sale at reduced prices, provision of vouchers for sanatorium treatment at a discount or free of charge, and some other benefits;
- benefits in the field of education and culture cover benefits for admission (recovery) to educational institutions, training in them, when using cultural and educational institutions, sports facilities;
- transportation benefits consist in granting the right to free travel during transfers and appointments, when traveling on basic and additional holidays, referral for treatment on all types of public transport urban, suburban and local communications (except taxis), as well as free transportation by all types transport (except for air) up to 20 tons of personal property from the previous place of residence to a new one in connection with dismissal from service and when transferred to a new place of service;
- Benefits for service in remote areas, areas with adverse climatic (environmental) conditions are diverse in their content. These include increased cash salaries of a monetary allowance, preferential length of service for retirement, etc.
A special kind of general rights of military personnel is the right to incentives, which are powerful incentives in the service activities of military personnel. Not all military personnel have the right to encouragement, but only those who are authorized by regulatory legal acts to apply them, that is, commanders and superiors.
Encouragement of servicemen is, on the one hand, a means of educating them, and, on the other hand, a means of strengthening military discipline. Encouragement of military personnel is a kind of stimulation of their military service activities, that is, the impact of commanders (chiefs) or other officials and bodies (President of the Russian Federation, Government of the Russian Federation, etc.) on the needs, interests, consciousness, will, and practical behavior of a serviceman , and, consequently, on the results of his military service activities. Encouragement (stimulation) contributes to the improvement of military discipline, the quality of the performance of military duties, and fosters the initiative and responsibility of servicemen. The use of incentives must be based on a legal basis, that is, consistent with the powers of a military official (official, body).
In order for an incentive to play its stimulating role, it must be:
1) justified, that is, applied for specific positive results in military service or merit;
2) timely;
3) fair (weighty, significant), that is, the incentive measure should correspond to the result or merit;
4) applied strictly individually, that is, for specific personal positive results and merits, a specific serviceman is subject to promotion, and not the team as a whole, in whose staff he is.
At the same time, an individual approach does not exclude the possibility of encouraging the entire personnel of the unit (military unit, ship, etc.), if positive result achieved as a result of collective action.
Types of social statuses
An important characteristic of each of the statuses is the range and freedom of other statuses. In any society, there is a certain hierarchy of statuses, which is the basis of its stratification. Certain statuses are prestigious, others are vice versa. Prestige is an assessment by society of the social significance of a particular status, enshrined in culture and public opinion.This hierarchy is formed under the influence of two factors:
The real usefulness of those social functions that a person performs;
- the system of values characteristic of a given society.
If the prestige of some statuses is unreasonably high or, conversely, underestimated, it is usually said that there is a loss of status balance. A society that tends to lose this balance cannot function normally.
There are statuses assigned (born) and achieved (acquired). A person receives the assigned status automatically - by ethnic origin, place of birth, family status - regardless of personal efforts (daughter, Buryat, Volzhanka, aristocrat). The achieved status - a writer, student, spouse, officer, laureate, director, deputy - is acquired by the efforts of the person himself with the help of various social groups - families, brigades, parties.
Assigned status does not coincide with innate. Only three social statuses are considered natural: sex, nationality, race. The Negro is a born status that characterizes the race. A man is an innate status that characterizes gender. Russian is an innate status that determines nationality. Race, gender and nationality are given biologically, a person inherits them against his will and consciousness.
Recently, scientists have begun to question whether birth status even exists if sex and skin color can be changed through surgery. The concepts of biological sex and socially acquired have appeared.
When parents are faces different nationality, it is difficult to determine what nationality the children should be. Often they themselves decide what to write in the passport.
Age is a biologically determined trait, but it is not an inborn status, since during a person’s life a person moves from one age to another and people expect quite specific behavior from a specific age category: from the young, for example, they expect respect for the elders, from adults - care about children and old people.
The kinship system has a whole set of assigned statuses. Only some of them are natural. These include the statuses: “son”, “daughter”, “sister”, “nephew”, “grandmother” and some others expressing consanguinity. There are also non-blood relatives, the so-called legal relatives, who become as a result of marriage, adoption, etc.
Achieved status. Significantly different from the assigned status. If the assigned status is not under the control of the individual, then the status achieved is under control. Any status that is not automatically given to a person by the very fact of birth is considered to be achieved.
A person acquires the profession of a driver or engineer through his own efforts, training and free choice. He also acquires the status of world champion, doctor of science or rock star thanks to his own efforts, great work.
Achieved status requires making an independent decision and independent action. The status of a husband is achievable: in order to get it, a man makes a decision, makes a formal proposal to his bride, and performs a host of other actions.
Achievable status refers to the positions that people occupy due to their efforts or merit. “Postgraduate student” is the status that university graduates achieve by competing with others and showing outstanding academic achievement.
The more dynamic a society is, the more cells in its social structure are designed for achieved statuses. The more statuses achieved in a society, the more democratic it is.
Statuses can also be formalized or non-formalized, depending on whether one or another function is performed within the framework of formalized or non-formalized social institutions and, more broadly, social interactions (for example, the status of a plant director and a leader of a company of close comrades).
Social status is the relative position of an individual or group in a social system. The concept of social status characterizes the place of the individual in the system of social relations, his activities in the main areas of life and the assessment of the individual's activities by society, expressed in certain quantitative and qualitative indicators (salary, bonuses, awards, titles, privileges), as well as self-esteem.
Social status in the sense of a norm and a social ideal has great potential for solving the problems of socialization of the individual, since the orientation towards achieving a higher social status stimulates social activity.
If a person's own social status is misunderstood, then he is guided by other people's patterns of behavior. There are two extremes in a person's assessment of his social status. Low status self-esteem is associated with weak resistance to external influence. Such people are not self-confident, more often subject to pessimistic moods. High self-esteem is more often associated with activity, enterprise, self-confidence, life optimism. Based on this, it makes sense to introduce the concept of status self-assessment as an essential personality trait that cannot be reduced to individual functions and actions of a person.
Personal status - the position that a person occupies in a small (or primary) group, depending on how he is assessed by his individual qualities.
Social status plays a dominant role among strangers, and personal status among acquaintances. Acquaintances make up the primary, small group. Introducing ourselves to strangers, especially employees of any organization, institution, enterprise, we usually name the place of work, social status and age. For familiar people, these characteristics are not important, but our personal qualities, that is, informal authority.
Each of us has a set of social and personal statuses, because we are involved in many large and small groups. The latter include family, circle of relatives and friends, school class, student group, interest club, etc. In them, a person can have a high, medium or low status, that is, be a leader, an independent, an outsider. Social and personal status may or may not coincide.
mixed status. Sometimes it is very difficult to determine what type this or that status belongs to. For example, being unemployed is not a position that most people aspire to. On the contrary, they avoid it. Most often, a person finds himself unemployed against his will and desire. The reason is factors beyond his control: the economic crisis, mass layoffs, the ruin of the company, etc. Such processes are not under the control of an individual. It is in his power to make efforts to find work or not to do so, resigned to the situation.
Political upheavals, coups d'etat, social revolutions, wars can change (or even cancel) some statuses of huge masses of people against their will and desire. After the October Revolution of 1917, the former nobles turned into emigrants, remained or became officials, engineers, workers, teachers, having lost the attributed status of a nobleman, which had disappeared from the social structure.
Dramatic changes can also occur at the individual level. If a person becomes disabled at the age of 30, his socio-economic situation has changed significantly: if earlier he earned his own bread, now he is completely dependent on state assistance. It is difficult to call it an attainable status, since no one wants to become disabled of their own free will. It could be considered as ascribed, but a 30-year-old cripple is not born disabled.
The title of academician is at first an attainable status, but later it turns into an ascribed one, as it is considered lifelong, although not hereditary. The cases described above can be attributed to mixed statuses. A person who has received a doctorate in science cannot pass it on to his son, but he can enjoy certain advantages if he decides to advance along the scientific path. If socio-demographic restrictions are imposed on the occupation of a particular position, then it thereby ceases to act as a person. There are also formal and informal statuses, basic and episodic, independent and dependent statuses.
Statuses in society are hierarchized.
The adopted hierarchy (ranking) of statuses is the basis for the stratification of a given society.
The social prestige (respect, recognition) of statuses (more precisely, the prestige of the functions assigned to a specific status), in fact, is a hierarchy of statuses shared by society and enshrined in culture and public opinion.
The prestige itself, and, accordingly, the hierarchy of statuses is formed under the influence of two factors:
1) the real functional significance of certain functions for the development of society, the reproduction of its structures (the invariant side of the status prestige);
2) value systems, preference scales of historical traditions taken into account in a given culture (the cultural-variable aspect of status prestige).
In this regard, the hierarchy, the prestige of status among different nations has much in common, and at the same time is very specific.
The prestige of status is shared by society. There can be no "imposture" of self-praise here. At the same time, the hierarchy of statuses, their prestige is affirmed, formed in society under the influence of sometimes elusive processes, assessments, and not always conscious preferences.
Society is constantly striving to support the accepted hierarchy of statuses - materially, morally, and even emotionally-symbolically (through rituals, ceremonies, ceremonies). Thus, the material reward of people occupying a prestigious status aims to compensate for their physical and intellectual, but also performs a latent function - quantitatively expresses the prestige of this status. For the same amount of effort, a person of prestige status will demand one reward, a person of less prestigious status another.
Moral support for status is expressed in the fact that people who occupy a prestigious status acquire a certain authority. The holders of this status themselves give great attention maintaining his prestige.
It is no coincidence that the social prestige of status plays a huge role in the distribution of social desires, plans, and energy. Prestigious status is sought by the most active, prepared, ambitious members of society.
The prestige (hierarchy) of statuses, which is protected by culture, traditions, on the one hand, is a fairly stable and even conservative phenomenon, and on the other hand, there are shifts in it, sometimes considerable ones, due to a change in social ties, functions that, ultimately, are generated changing values, social priorities and goals.
As a form of social consciousness, science is a reflection of reality in the system of knowledge.
The social status of the profession
A generalized estimated indicator of the comparative position of a given profession among other professions that form the professional and qualification structure of society, due to the division of labor. S.s.p. characterizes the official and (or) unofficial recognition of its necessity and popularity. Two forms of profession status are usually noted - economic and prestigious.The economic status depends on the level of material reward assumed (actually or potentially) when choosing and implementing a professional path (choosing a profession, professional self-determination). One of the reasons for the difference in remuneration is the level of qualification. Therefore, the economic statuses of different professions can differ in terms of the amount of payment, making up a fixed scale of what is paid. Low- or high-paid professions have the corresponding ranks in the rating scale of preferences for this criterion of choosing a profession. A certain influence on the economic status of a profession is exerted by the stability of demand for it, the competitiveness of persons in this profession in the group of related professions.
The prestigious status (prestige) of a profession is determined by the content (share of creative functions, creative functions, creative nature) of this type of work and the degree of popularity of the profession. Work that involves monotonous manual operations or does not give prospects for promotion leads to a low prestige of the respective professions. When we are talking about prestige and popularity, one should not forget about socio-psychological factors. Here even the name of the profession matters: there are cases when its change significantly increased the prestige of this profession. This effect also manifested itself in Russia during the transition period, when the demand for “new professions” appeared on the labor market. The list of all the criteria by which the most preferred (most prestigious) profession is determined is very diverse.
It includes the conditions and level of remuneration, independence, the opportunity for creativity, a free work schedule, confidence in the stability of one's position, opportunities for advancement, access to power, work abroad, etc. Studies show that in real life, economic and prestigious statuses are closely related. and are perceived as one. At least at the level of ordinary consciousness; accordingly, the factors of influence that determine the prestige and attractiveness of a particular profession in the eyes of the “public” are closely intertwined.
Classification of social statuses
Statuses determined by the position of the individual in the group:1) social status - the position of a person in society, which he occupies as a representative of a large social group (profession, class, nationality, gender, age, religion).
Professional - official status - the basic status of the individual, fixes the social, economic and industrial-technical situation of a person (banker, engineer, lawyer, etc.).
2) Personal status - the position that a person occupies in a small group, depending on how he is assessed by his individual qualities.
Personal status plays a dominant role among people you know. For familiar people, it is not the characteristics, where you work and your social position that are important, but our personal qualities.
3) The main status - the status by which the individual is distinguished by others, determines the lifestyle, the circle of acquaintances, the manner of behavior with which a person is identified by other people or with which he identifies himself. For men, most often - the status associated with work, profession, for women - a housewife, mother. Although other options are possible.
The main status is relative: it is not unambiguously connected with gender, profession, race. The main thing is the status, which determines the style and lifestyle, the circle of acquaintances, the manner of behavior.
Statuses acquired by virtue of the presence or absence of free choice:
1) Assigned status - the social status with which a person is born (innate, natural status is determined by race, gender, nationality), or which will be assigned to him over time (title, fortune, etc.).
Natural status - the essential and most stable characteristics of a person (men and women, childhood, youth, maturity, etc.).
Assigned status does not coincide with innate. Only three social statuses are considered innate: sex, nationality, race (i.e. biologically inherited); (Negro - born, characterizing the race; man - born, describing gender; Russian - born, showing nationality).
2) Achieved (acquired) status - social status, which is achieved as a result of a person's own efforts, desire, free choice, or acquired through good luck and luck.
3) Mixed status has the characteristics of what is prescribed and achieved, but not achieved by the will of a person: a disabled person, a refugee, an unemployed person, an emperor, a Chinese of American origin.
Political upheavals, coups d'etat, social revolutions, wars can change or even cancel some statuses of huge masses of people against their will and desire.
The title of academician is at first attainable, but later it turns into ascribed, because. considered to be for life.
Growth of social status
The above career problems are to a certain extent related to the processes of socialization, both in the early and later stages of this process. There are three main stages of organizational socialization, considering them simultaneously as career stages: preliminary socialization for the entry and exit of employees, coordination, role management.1. The preliminary stage includes socialization measures designed to:
A) for employees who have not yet started a certain job;
b) for employees preparing to leave this job.
In case a), this is, first of all, the exchange of reliable information between the parties. For a beginner, information about working conditions and about the organization as a whole is important, which could help them assess their strengths and prospects, get in the know and adapt to.
2. A person enters the second stage of socialization when he labor activity in the workplace has already begun.
The members of the organization face 4 tasks that they solve at this stage and on which their further socialization depends:
- "acceptance" - establishing interpersonal relationships with colleagues and management,
- "competence" - the study of the tasks required to perform the work,
- "role definition" - finding out one's role in the organization, in formal and informal groups,
- "correspondence of the assessment" - an assessment of the success of the performance of the role in meeting the need for work.
For effective socialization at this stage, it is proposed to carry out the following activities:
Implementation of social and psychological orientation programs for employees,
- implementation of vocational training programs in closer unity with orientation programs,
- performance evaluation with the aim of strengthening and expanding feedback from employees as much as possible,
- identification and proposal of works containing a challenge in order to stimulate initiative and more fully reveal the creative potential of employees,
- the definition of "bosses" and mentors in order to strengthen the informal influence on employees in the right direction.
3. Role management. The position of the employee at this stage stabilizes, the employee knows what is required of him, is confident in his abilities, sees prospects and gradually moves along the planned career trajectory. This stage is often associated with the emergence of conflicts between work and family.
Despite the fact that socialization largely depends on the individual qualities of the individual, it can be predicted and made to some extent a controlled process. In large organizations, there are opportunities to manage organizational socialization through personnel and more general social policies. For this purpose, long-term plans and programs for maintaining social stability and social development of the organization are drawn up. Such plans and programs are developed by personnel managers with the involvement of specialists of various profiles.
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Theoretical foundations for preparation
For a practical lesson
Social politics state in the conditions of the market mechanism of income generation.
Incomes of the population, their types and sources of formation. Nominal and real income. Functional and personal income distribution.
Income differentiation: causes and factors. Measuring income differentiation and assessing their global trends.
Distribution of personal income. Personal distribution of income. Causes of income differentiation.
Socio-economic structure of society. Identification of income, property and social status of citizens.
Standard of living. The system of indicators for assessing the standard of living and poverty. Socio-economic mobility and social progress. State redistribution of income: concepts, goals and tools. Economic Efficiency and Equity. Alternative Conceptual Approaches to Government Redistribution of Income.
The system of social protection of the population of Russia in the transition period to a market economy: declarations, real content and consequences.
Basic concepts necessary to study the topic
Social policy is aimed at solving the following tasks:
1) stabilization of the living standards of the population and prevention of mass poverty;
2) containment of the growth of unemployment and material support for the unemployed, as well as the preparation of labor resources of such a size and quality that correspond to the needs of social production;
3) maintaining a stable level of real incomes of the population through anti-inflationary measures and indexation of incomes;
4) development of social sectors (education, healthcare, housing, Culture and art).
Social policy has a number of functions:
1) compensatory - aimed at eliminating external constraining conditions that do not allow an individual to be an active participant in relations existing in society;
2) elective - aimed at determining the circumstances and properties of the individual himself, allowing him to be classified as needy;
3) cumulative - accumulates the social potential of the state, which is expressed in the dependence of individuals on the socio-political activities of the state.
The main principles of social policy implementation are:
1) protection of the standard of living by introducing various forms of compensation for price increases and indexation;
2) providing assistance to the poorest families;
3) issuance of assistance in case of unemployment;
4) ensuring the policy of social insurance, setting the minimum wage for employees;
5) development of education, protection of health, environment, mainly at the expense of the state;
6) conducting an active policy aimed at ensuring qualifications.
Test 1
1. Suppose that the state has decided to achieve complete equality in income. This says that:
a) the whole society will become richer;
b) economic efficiency will be significantly reduced;
c) there will be no need for any type of income tax;
d) both equity and economic efficiency will increase.
2. When a government makes transfers in kind, it:
a) transfer money directly to the recipient;
b) allows the recipient to reduce their tax obligations to the state;
c) transfers goods and services for which payment is not required;
d) transfers only to the elderly and disabled.
3. Which of the following is included in the functional distribution of income:
a) income from labor in the form of wages;
b) capital income in the form of interest;
c) the rental income of the land;
d) profit.
4. The need for social policy is due to the fact that:
a) the market mechanism does not guarantee a minimum level of well-being for all citizens;
b) the state always has free financial resources to support the poorest segments of the population;
c) one of the requirements of international law is to support the poor;
d) political instability is often the result of social tension.
5. None of the following are directly related to social policy objectives:
a) development of social infrastructure;
b) territorial planning;
c) creation of conditions for the all-round development of a person;
d) setting income tax rates individuals.
6. The concept of social infrastructure includes:
a) housing and communal services;
b) health care institutions;
c) firms providing consulting services to small businesses;
d) toll roads.
7. The development of the human potential of the country provides for the following measures:
a) creation of conditions for the realization of basic socio-economic human rights;
b) formation of economic incentives for the development of entrepreneurship;
c) raising the level of education;
d) socialization and professional orientation of young people.
8. Currently, Russia provides social support to the following categories of the population:
a) disabled people;
b) large families;
c) stateless persons;
d) scientists engaged in socially significant research.
9. The subsistence minimum is intended to cover the following expenses:
a) paying utility bills;
b) sanatorium treatment;
c) satisfaction of physiological nutritional needs;
d) training and advanced training.
10. The highest level of social protection of the population has been achieved in such countries as:
a) Norway, Sweden;
b) Sweden, USA, Canada;
c) France, Germany;
d) Great Britain, France.
11. The main principles that guarantee the right of every person to work in any state are:
a) equality of subjects in the labor market;
b) free choice of profession and sphere of application of labor;
c) legislative regulation of working conditions;
d) equality of all citizens before the law.
12. Currently in Russia it is established that the length of working time per week cannot exceed:
a) 36 hours;
b) 48 hours;
c) 40 hours;
d) 42 hours.
13. The right to annual paid leave arises for the employee after ___ months of work in the organization:
14. The main local normative act regulating the issues of labor law at the enterprise is:
a) the Labor Code;
b) collective agreement;
c) internal labor regulations;
d) an employment contract.
15. In the international arena, the issues of normative regulation and control of observance of the rights of citizens to work are dealt with by:
c) UNESCO;
16. The negative consequences of social policy include the following:
a) unemployment benefits delay the search for work, lead to an increase in the claims of the unemployed;
b) an unjustified increase in social spending leads to a state budget deficit;
c) decrease in real wages;
d) the expansion of the shadow economy due to the unwillingness to pay wages in full and pay taxes on it.
17. Indicators that determine the degree of equitable distribution of income are:
a) real total income and per capita income;
b) the minimum consumer basket and the minimum wage;
c) cost of living level and cost of living index;
d) decile coefficients, Lorentz curve, Gini coefficient.
18. The nature of income distribution in dynamics is expressed using:
a) the Gini coefficient;
b) Lorenz curve;
c) the level of well-being of the population;
d) Laffer curve.
a) change in the subsistence minimum;
b) the dynamics of the cost of goods and services in the volume of their sale in the current period;
c) change in the cost of consumer goods in the volume of their sale in the base period;
d) transition from a minimum consumer basket to a rational one.
a) the cost of consumer goods in the volume of their sale in the base period;
b) changes in the structure of the consumer basket;
c) changes in the structure of expenses of the “average family”;
d) the cost of goods and services in the volume of their sale in the current period.
Test 2
1. Nominal wages are:
a) accrued wages;
b) wages net of taxes and other payments;
c) wages plus cash receipts from other sources;
d) all of the above.
2. Real wages are:
a) the quantity of goods and services purchased for nominal wages;
b) salary. Remaining after deduction of taxes and other payments;
c) the amount of family expenses during the month;
d) all answers are correct.
3. The following data on price dynamics are available:
Table 34
Let us assume that the increase in the level of nominal wages for employees entering into employment contracts for a two-year period starting from 2009 is due to the dependence: ΔW / W = 0.1 (where W is the nominal wage). In this case, it can be argued that real wages:
a) will tend to decrease;
b) will remain unchanged;
c) will increase in 2010 more significantly than in 2009;
d) will increase in 2009 more significantly than in 2010.
4. Nominal incomes of the country's population increased by 50% over the year. If the price level for the same period increased by 25%, then the real incomes of the population:
a) increased by 20%;
b) decreased by 20%;
c) increased by 25%;
d) decreased by 25%.
5. The Lorenz curve can be used to measure:
a) changes in tax rates;
b) change in the level of wages;
c) change in the prices of factors of production;
d) None of the above is correct.
6. If the Lorentz curve is a 45º beam, the variables being compared at each point on the curve will be:
a) have same values;
b) have negative values;
c) different values;
d) opposite values.
a) income inequality in society;
b) similarities between family incomes;
c) comparability of family incomes;
d) income equality in society.
8. The standard of living is determined by:
a) current income, accumulated tangible property;
b) the number of social services provided free of charge;
c) a system of minimum consumer budgets - physiological, subsistence and social minimums;
d) all answers are correct.
9. The objects of social policy are:
a) living and working conditions of a person;
b) intergroup and interpersonal relations;
c) social structure;
d) all answers are correct.
10. Social policy is carried out by the state using various but interrelated mechanisms determined during its formation, namely:
1) legislative and regulatory framework;
2) tax leverage and incentives;
3) administrative decisions;
4) financial and credit mechanism.
11. The totality of long-term and medium-term goals for the development of society in the field of the level and quality of life of the population is:
a) social policy;
b) social strategy;
c) social tactics;
d) economic policy.
12. Absolute poverty is:
a) the level of per capita income in the household, at which the subsistence minimum or another indicator that is used to assess the standard of living is not achieved;
b) the level of per capita income in the household is insufficient according to the household's own assessment;
c) the level of per capita income in the household is below the average for the region or another continuum, which is used to calculate the average value
d) all answers are correct.
13. The living wage in general for the Russian Federation is intended for:
a) assessing the standard of living of the population of the Russian Federation in the development and implementation of social policy and federal social programs;
b) substantiation of the minimum wage and minimum old-age pension established at the federal level, as well as for determining the amount of scholarships, allowances and other social payments;
c) formation of the federal budget.
d) all answers are correct.
14. In general, in the Russian Federation and in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, the subsistence minimum is determined by:
a) is established annually by the Government of the Russian Federation;
b) at least once every five years on the basis of methodological recommendations developed with the participation of all-Russian associations of trade unions, in the manner established by the Government of the Russian Federation;
c) quarterly on the basis of the consumer basket and the data of the State Committee of the Russian Federation on Statistics on the level of consumer prices for food, non-food products and services and expenses for mandatory payments and fees;
d) there is no correct answer.
15. The main areas of social protection of the population do not include:
a) social protection of children, childhood and adolescence;
b) social protection of pensioners;
c) social protection of disabled citizens;
d) social protection of the family.
16. Which of the following does not apply to the basic principles of construction public policy in the labor market in countries with market economies:
a) recognition of the property right of a person to his ability to productive and creative work;
b) the responsibility of the state for ensuring full employment of the population (providing a job to everyone who wants to work);
c) the availability of state guarantees in the field of facilitating the employment of citizens and material support for persons recognized as unemployed in the prescribed manner;
d) all answers are correct.
17. The social policy budget is a complex entity and consists of:
a) the consolidated state budget;
b) funds of employers;
c) household budgets;
d) all answers are correct.
18. Model of state paternalism:
d) there is no correct answer.
19. Liberal model of social policy:
a) is focused on determining by the state the qualitative (ideology) and quantitative (social sphere) parameters of all forms of relations in society without exception and the elimination of alternative types of these relations;
b) is based on the postulate of the division of members of society into economically strong and economically weak;
c) assumes that in case of extreme (force majeure) situations due to natural (earthquakes, floods, etc.) or man-made causes (accidents, terrorist attacks, etc.), assistance from the state budget is provided to all households, without exception, regardless of their income level.
d) there is no correct answer.
20. The economic effect of social policy is:
a) the ratio of the costs of social policy to the result (social effect) that was due to these costs;
b) the difference between the result of social policy (social effect), expressed in cost units, and the costs that ensured this result;
c) the difference between indicators characterizing the state of the social sphere for the final and initial (base) periods of time;
d) the ratio of the social effect of social policy to the indicator characterizing the state of the social sphere in the initial (basic) period of time.
Practical tasks
Are the following statements true (yes or no)?
1. One of the tasks of social policy is to improve the working and living conditions of people.
2. Social policy does not take into account the material interests of members of society.
3. Improving the efficiency of the economic activity of workers is the main social function of economic policy.
4. Low personal incomes exist because the economy is in recession.
5. Ethnicity determines income differentiation in modern Russia.
6. State income policy in market economies is aimed at redistributing income through a system of taxes and social transfers.
7. Protection of the health of the country's population is one of the principles of social policy.
Examples of problem solving
Task 1
A full-time employee of Vega LLC has a monthly income of 7 thousand rubles. An application was submitted to the accounting department for the presence of two children under the age of 18. Calculate the amount of monthly deductions and the amount of personal income tax.
Decision
For a visual representation, let's summarize all the data in table 35 and enter the amount of monthly income, indicating the size of standard deductions, rubles:
Table 35
| Month | Monthly income | standard tax deduction | Standard tax deduction for children | The tax base |
| January | 7 000 | 2 ∙ 1 000 = 2 000 | 4 600 | |
| February | 7 000 | 2 ∙ 1 000 = 2 000 | 4 600 | |
| March | 7 000 | 2 ∙ 1 000 = 2 000 | 4 600 | |
| April | 7 000 | 2 ∙ 1 000 = 2 000 | 4 600 | |
| May | 7 000 | 2 ∙ 1 000 = 2 000 | 4 600 | |
| June | 7 000 | – | 2 ∙ 1 000 = 2 000 | 5 000 |
| July | 7 000 | – | 2 ∙ 1 000 = 2 000 | 5 000 |
| August | 7 000 | – | 2 ∙ 1 000 = 2 000 | 5 000 |
| September | 7 000 | – | 2 ∙ 1 000 = 2 000 | 5 000 |
The end of the table. 35
Standard tax deduction per employee in the amount of 400 rubles. monthly deducted from the income received until the month until the total income since the beginning of the year reaches 40 thousand rubles. The standard tax deduction for one child is 1000 rubles. until the month until the total income reaches 280 thousand rubles. As the calculations in the table show, the standard tax deduction for an employee was valid until May inclusive, and for children throughout the year. Determine the amount of personal income tax for the year:
58 000 rub. ∙ 13% / 100% = RUB 7,540
Task 2
Let's suppose that in a certain country the salary of a worker is 130,000 den. units If the tax base for an employee on an accrual basis from the beginning of the year is up to 100 thousand den. units, then the tax rate on social Security is 35%. If this tax base is in the range from 100 to 300 thousand den. unit, the tax rate is 20%. Determine the amount of social tax for a worker in a given country and the share of the tax in the worker's income.
Decision
Income tax 100 thousand den. units is equal to 0.35 ∙ 100 = 35 thousand den. units The employee's salary exceeds the threshold of 100 thousand den. units for 30 thousand den. units The tax on this amount is 0.2 ∙ 30 = 6 thousand den. units Consequently, the value of the social tax is equal to: 35 + 6 = 41 thousand den. units The ratio of tax to income is:
41 / 130 = 0,315 (31,5%).
Task 3
The total salary in the current month amounted to 150 thousand rubles. Calculate the amount of contributions to the Pension Fund of Russia, the federal budget, the Social Insurance Fund, the Federal Compulsory Medical Insurance Fund and the Territorial Compulsory Medical Insurance Fund.
Decision
1. Determine the amount of contributions to the Pension Fund of Russia for the insurance part of the labor pension: 150 thousand rubles. ∙ 10% = 15 thousand rubles
2. Let's determine the amount of contributions to the Pension Fund of Russia for the funded part of the labor pension: 150 thousand rubles. ∙ 4% = 6 thousand rubles
3. Determine the amount of contributions to the federal budget: 150 thousand rubles. ∙ 20% = 30 thousand rubles
4. Determine the amount of contributions to the Social Insurance Fund: 150 thousand rubles. ∙ 2.9% = 4350 rubles
5. Determine the amount of contributions to the Federal Compulsory Medical Insurance Fund: 150 thousand rubles. ∙ 1.1% = 1650 rubles
6. Determine the amount of contributions to the Territorial Compulsory Medical Insurance Fund: 150 thousand rubles. ∙ 2% = 3 thousand rubles
Task 4
Based on the data of two countries, determine the human development index for each of them, compare the results and formulate conclusions about the ratio of the standard of living of these countries.
Table 36
Decision
The Human Development Index (HDI) is an integral generalizing indicator of the standard of living of the population, developed by specialists from the UN Development Program. The HDI is a composite index that includes three indicators that reflect the most important aspects of living standards: life expectancy at birth, educational attainment, and real GDP per capita in US dollars at purchasing power parity. The HDI is determined by the formula of the arithmetic mean of the indices of the three indicated indicators:
I RPP \u003d (I LE + I DUO + I GDP) / 3.
The index of each indicator is calculated by the formula:
where X fact, X min , X max - actual, minimum and maximum values of the i-th indicator, respectively.
To calculate the life expectancy index at birth, the minimum value is assumed to be 25 years, and the maximum value is 85 years:
Therefore, for country A:
For country B:
The Educational Achievement Index is calculated as the arithmetic mean of two sub-indices: the Adult Literacy Index i 1 (aged 15 years and over) weighing 2/3 and the Index of the Aggregate Share of Students in Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Education i 2 (for persons younger than 24 years old) with a weight of 1/3:
When calculating literacy indices, X min is assumed to be zero, and X max =100%.
So for country A:
For country B:
When calculating the index of real GDP per capita, X min is taken equal to $100, X max = $40,000.
For country A:
For country B:
As a result, for country A:
For country B:
The closer the HDI value is to one, the higher the degree of human development in the country. Calculations show that in country A the quality of life is higher than in country B, although it is much lower than the optimal value.
Task 5
Daily salary - 120 rubles. The duration of the working day is 8 hours. Determine how the price of 1 hour of labor will change if the working day increases to 10 hours, and the time wage increases to 130 rubles. per day; labor intensity will increase by 10%, and wages by 5%. What is the "price of an hour of labor"?
Decision
Initially, the price of an hour of labor was 15 rubles. (120 / 8). With an increase in working hours from 8 to 10 hours and an increase in time wages to 130 rubles. the price of 1 hour of labor will drop to 13 rubles. (130 / 10).
To analyze the dynamics of wages under the influence of an increase in the intensity of labor, it must be remembered that the intensity of labor acts as a hidden form of lengthening the working day by the same amount (10%). Therefore, an increase in labor intensity by 10% is equivalent to lengthening the working day to 8.8 hours (8 + 8 ∙ 0.01). At the same time, the daily wage increased to 126 rubles. (120 + 120 ∙ 0.05). Therefore, under the influence of a 10% increase in labor intensity and a 5% increase in wages, the price of an hour of labor decreased from 15 to 14.32 (126 / 8.8).
The price of an hour of labor is a special form of expressing the cost of labor power, which is introduced to determine the actual amount of hourly wages.
Tasks
1. The average salary last year amounted to 3,000 rubles, and this year it increased to 4,000 rubles. At the same time, inflation last year was 18%, this year it has decreased to 14%. Determine how real wages have changed over the years.
2. Based on the data of two countries, determine the human development index for each of them, compare the results and formulate conclusions about the ratio of the standard of living of these countries.
Table 37
3. Nominal wages of public sector employees in a conditional country have increased by 910% over 10 years. The average price growth rate for the same period was 50% per year. Determine the index of real wages of public sector employees.
4. In the notional economic system, 150 trillion deniers worth of food was consumed in the previous year. units, and durable goods by 110 trillion den. units In the current year, the volumes of consumption of these goods amounted to 161 and 117 trillion denier. units respectively. Prices this year have increased by 103% for food products, by 105% for durable goods. Determine the index of general price growth in the given economic system.
5. In modern economically developed countries, social support of the population plays an important role. Let's imagine that your student group received an order from government agencies to develop and conduct a survey "Do you need social support from the state?"
Jointly develop a mini-survey questionnaire (10-12 questions), including questions that reveal household needs for specific types of state social assistance. After completing the questionnaires, carry out collective processing of the questionnaires and give individual meaningful comments on the results.
6. Consider the diagram shown in the figure and answer a few questions.
Rice. 10. Income distribution scheme
a) What process is shown in this diagram?
b) What microsections can this process be divided into?
c) Display these micro-sections and formulate standards (benchmarks) through which this process can be measured and interpreted.
7. Suppose that the top 20% of families have 4.6% of the country's national income. The share of the next 20% of families is 10.8%. The third 20% of families have 16.9% of income. The fourth group of families, constituting 20% of the population, consumes 24% of income. Finally, the remaining 20% of families account for 43.7% of the national income. Plot the Lorenz curve and use it to determine the Gini coefficient.
8. According to international analysts, there is a close direct relationship between a country's economic growth rate and its success in fighting poverty. Market economists generally assume that people's average propensity to save income for future consumption increases as their income rises. And vice versa than poorer people the less they can afford to take care of their future and save. The same pattern is usually observed in the economic behavior of private firms or even governments. It is not surprising, therefore, that in poorer countries where most of income is spent to meet current, often urgent, needs, the overall level of national saving is, as a rule, lower. The low level of gross domestic saving hinders the growth of gross domestic investment, and without additional investment it is impossible to raise the efficiency of the economy and raise incomes. This completes the vicious circle of poverty.
 |
Rice. 11. "Vicious circle of poverty"
Consider the diagram shown in the figure and answer the questions:
1. Does this mean that poor countries are forever doomed to revolve in this vicious circle?
9. There are 8 households in the conditional economic system, and the income of the i-th household can be expressed by the equation 20 + 3·i. Determine the quartile coefficient.
10. Determine the social and economic efficiency of the employment policy carried out in the conditional country, if it is known that the number of unemployed deregistered for all reasons during the year amounted to 500 thousand people, the number of unemployed at the beginning of the next year was 5 million people, and budget expenditures of the state employment fund amounted to 5 billion denier. units
Note
The calculation of the social efficiency of the employment policy can be made according to the following formula:
SEPZ \u003d CHBSU / CHBk,
where SEPZ is the social efficiency of the employment policy in a certain calendar period; CHBSU - the number of unemployed deregistered for all reasons during the calendar period, people; NBq is the number of unemployed at the end of the period, people.
The economic efficiency of a government employment policy can be calculated in two ways.
In the first method of calculation, the specific (per unit of social efficiency of the employment policy) expenditures of the budget of the employment policy are determined:
EEPZse \u003d RGFZN / SEPZ,
where EEPZse is the economic efficiency of the employment policy (according to social efficiency) in a certain calendar period, den. unit/unit social efficiency; RGFZN - expenditures of the GFZN budget for the same calendar period, den. units
The second way to assess the economic efficiency of the state employment policy involves the use of a more traditional indicator of annual expenditures of the employment policy budget per unemployed person deregistered during the reporting period. In this case, the formula for calculating the economic efficiency of the employment policy is as follows:
EEPZbsu = RGFZN/ChBSU,
where EEPZbsu is the economic efficiency of the employment policy (according to the number of unemployed deregistered), money. unit/person
As in the case of the indicator of the economic efficiency of the employment policy (in terms of its social efficiency), the greater the expenditure of the SFZN, the lower the economic efficiency of the employment policy.
Tasks for independent work
The main trends in the formation and distribution of personal incomes of the population and the evolution of the social structure of society.
Poverty alleviation programs in different countries.
Distribution of income between families. Line of poverty and security.
Absolute and relative poverty, physical poverty.
Genesis and evolution of the system of social protection of the population.
Household as an object of economic and social policy.
The concept of a socially oriented market. Development and consequences of application in different countries.
And, accordingly, the owner of many different statuses. The whole set of human statuses is called status set. The status that the person himself or those around him consider the main one is called main status. This is usually professional or family status, or status in the group where the person has achieved the greatest success.
Statuses are divided into prescribed(obtained by virtue of birth) and achieved(which are acquired purposefully). The freer the society, the less important are the statuses prescribed and the more important are the achieved ones.
A person can have different statuses. For example, his status set may be as follows: male, unmarried, candidate of technical sciences, computer programming specialist, Russian, city dweller, Orthodox, etc. A number of statuses (Russian, male) were received by him from birth - these are prescribed statuses. A number of other statuses (candidate of sciences, programmer) he acquired, having made certain efforts for this, these are achieved statuses. Suppose this person identifies primarily as a programmer; therefore, the programmer is his main status.
The social prestige of a person
The concept of status is usually associated with the concept of prestige.
social prestige - this is a public assessment of the significance of the position that a person occupies in.
The higher the prestige of a person's social position, the higher his social status is estimated. For example, the professions of an economist or a lawyer are considered prestigious; education received in a good educational institution; high post; a specific place of residence (capital, city center). If they talk about the high importance not of a social position, but of a particular person and his personal qualities, in this case they mean not prestige, but authority.
social role
Social status is a characteristic of a person's inclusion in the social structure. In real life, the status of a person is manifested through the roles that he plays.
social role is a set of requirements that are imposed by society on persons occupying a specific social position.
In other words, if someone occupies a certain position in society, they will be expected to behave accordingly.
A priest is expected to behave in accordance with high moral standards, from a rock star - scandalous acts. If a priest begins to behave scandalously, and a rock star begins to preach sermons, this will cause bewilderment, discontent and even condemnation of the public.
In order to feel comfortable in society, we must expect people to play their roles and act within the rules prescribed by society: a teacher in a university will teach us scientific theories, not; the doctor will think about our health, not his earnings. If we did not expect others to fulfill their roles, we would not be able to trust anyone and our lives would be filled with hostility and suspicion.
Thus, if social status is the position of a person in the social structure of society with certain rights and obligations, then a social role is the functions performed by a person in accordance with his status: the behavior that is expected from the owner of this status.
Even with the same social status, the nature of the roles performed can vary significantly. This is due to the fact that the performance of roles has a personal coloring, and the roles themselves can have different versions of performance. For example, with r. the owner of such a social status as the father of the family, may be demanding and strict with the child (play his role in an authoritarian manner), may build relationships in a spirit of cooperation and partnership (democratic behavior), or may let events take their course, giving the child a wide degree of freedom (permissive style). In exactly the same way, different theater actors will play the same role in completely different ways.
Throughout life, a person's position in the social structure may change. As a rule, these changes are associated with the transition of a person from one social group to another: from unskilled workers to specialists, from villagers to city dwellers, and so on.
Features of social status
Status - it is a social position that includes a given type of profession, economic situation, political preferences, demographic characteristics. For example, the status of a citizen I.I. Ivanov is defined as follows: “salesman” is a profession, “a wage worker with an average income” is economic traits, “LDPR member” is a political characteristic, “a man aged 25” is a demographic quality.
Each status as an element of the social division of labor contains a set of rights and obligations. Rights refer to what a person can freely allow or allow in relation to other people. Duties prescribe some necessary actions to the status holder: in relation to others, at their workplace, etc. Responsibilities are strictly defined, fixed in rules, instructions, regulations, or enshrined in custom. Responsibilities limit behavior to certain limits, make it predictable. For example, the status of a slave in the ancient world assumed only duties and did not contain any rights. In a totalitarian society, rights and obligations are asymmetrical: the ruler and senior officials have maximum rights and minimum duties; ordinary citizens have many duties and few rights. In our country in Soviet times, many rights were proclaimed in the constitution, but not all of them could be realized. In a democratic society, rights and obligations are more symmetrical. It can be said that the level of social development of a society depends on how the rights and obligations of citizens are correlated and observed.
It is important that the duties of the individual presuppose his responsibility for their qualitative fulfillment. So, the tailor is obliged to sew a suit on time and with high quality; if this is not done, he must be punished somehow - pay a penalty or be fired. The organization is obliged under the contract to deliver products to the customer, otherwise it incurs losses in the form of fines and penalties. Even in ancient Assyria, there was such an order (fixed in the laws of Hammurabi): if an architect built a building that subsequently collapsed and crushed the owner, the architect was deprived of his life. This is one of the early and primitive forms of responsibility. Nowadays, the forms of manifestation of responsibility are quite diverse and are determined by the culture of society, the level of social development. In modern society, rights, freedoms and duties are determined social norms, laws, traditions of society.
Thus, status- the position of the individual in , which is connected with other positions through a system of rights, duties and responsibilities.
Since each person participates in many groups and organizations, he can have many statuses. For example, the mentioned citizen Ivanov is a man, a middle-aged person, a resident of Penza, a salesman, a member of the Liberal Democratic Party, an Orthodox, a Russian, a voter, a football player, a regular visitor to a beer bar, a husband, a father, an uncle, etc. In this set of statuses that any person has, one is the main one, the key one. The main status is the most characteristic for a given individual and is usually associated with the main place of his work or occupation: "salesman", "entrepreneur", "scientist", "bank director", "worker in an industrial enterprise", "housewife", etc. P. The main thing is the status that determines the financial situation, and hence the lifestyle, circle of acquaintances, demeanor.
Given(innate, prescribed) status determined by sex, nationality, race, i.e. biologically predetermined characteristics inherited by a person in addition to his will and consciousness. The achievements of modern medicine make some statuses changeable. Thus, the concept of biological sex, socially acquired, appeared. With the help of surgical operations, a man who played with dolls from childhood, dressed like a girl, thought and felt like a girl, can become a woman. He finds his true gender, to which he was psychologically predisposed, but did not receive at birth. What gender - male or female - should be considered innate in this case? There is no single answer. Sociologists also find it difficult to determine what nationality a person belongs to whose parents are persons of different nationalities. Often, moving to another country in childhood, emigrants forget the old customs, their native language and practically do not differ from the indigenous inhabitants of their new homeland. In this case, the biological nationality is replaced by the socially acquired one.
Acquired Status is a status that a person receives under certain conditions. So, the eldest son of an English lord after his death inherits this status. The kinship system has a whole set of acquired statuses. If innate statuses express consanguinity ("son", "daughter", "sister", "brother", "nephew", "uncle", "grandmother", "grandfather", "aunt", "cousin"), then non-blood relatives have an acquired status. So, having married, a person can get all his wife's relatives as relatives. “Mother-in-law”, “father-in-law”, “sister-in-law”, “brother-in-law” are acquired statuses.
Achieved status - socially acquired by a person through his own efforts, desire, luck. Thus, a person acquires the status of a manager through education and perseverance. The more democratic the society is, the more statuses are achieved in the society.
Different statuses have their own insignia (symbols). In particular, the uniform of the military distinguishes them from the mass of the civilian population; in addition, each military rank has its own differences: a private, major, general has different badges, shoulder straps, headgear.
status image, or image, is a set of ideas about how a person should behave in accordance with his status. In order to match the status image, a person must “not allow himself too much”, in other words, look the way others expect from him. For example, the president cannot sleep through a meeting with the leader of another country, university professors cannot sleep drunk in the stairwell, as this does not correspond to their status image. There are situations when a person undeservedly tries to be “on an equal footing” with a person who has a different status in terms of rank, which leads to the manifestation of familiarity (amikoshonstvo), i.e. unceremonious, cheeky attitude.
Differences between people, due to assigned status, are noticeable to one degree or another. Usually each person, as well as a group of people, tends to occupy a more advantageous social position. Under certain circumstances, a flower seller can become a vice-premier of the country, a millionaire. Others do not succeed, because the assigned status (sex, age, nationality) interferes.
At the same time, some social strata are trying to raise their status by uniting in movements (women's movements, organizations like the "union of entrepreneurs", etc.) and lobbying their interests everywhere. However, there are factors that hinder the attempts of individual groups to change their status. Among them are ethnic tensions, attempts by other groups to maintain the status quo, lack of strong leaders, and so on.
Thus, under social status in sociology is understood the position that a person (or social group) occupies in society. Since each person is a member of various, he is the owner of many statuses (i.e., the bearer of some status set). Each of the available statuses is associated with a set of rights that determine what the holder of the status can afford, and obligations that prescribe the implementation of specific actions. In general, status can be defined as the position of an individual in the social structure of society, associated with other positions through a system of rights, duties and responsibilities.
A competitive market is a mechanism for the efficient use of limited resources, the distribution of which among economic entities is an exogenous (external) parameter for the market, initially set according to different parameters (income level, savings, etc.).
In other words, there is an initial inequality in the distribution of income in the market, which, in the course of its functioning, can increase or even out.
The neoclassical concept of distributive market justice is most fully expounded in the writings of the American neoclassicist D. B. Clark (Philosophy of Wealth, Distribution of Wealth), in which he argues that the distribution of social income is regulated by “natural law”. Representatives of each social group have an income in accordance with the "principle of justice". The essence of this law is that in a competitive market, the price of a production factor (labor, capital, organizational skills) corresponds to its marginal productivity, therefore, the market pricing system, undeformed by state intervention, ensures an exclusively competitive distribution of income, focused only on market justice (efficiency).
This approach has been challenged by neo-Casianist teachings that have emphasized the non-competitive nature of markets and the role of social factors (such as power, political decisions, and inequality of ability and opportunity) in the distribution of income.
Thus, if the category of market justice is based on the criteria of efficiency, then the category of social justice is based on ethical criteria and principles accepted in society. Socially equitable distribution is usually understood as the correspondence of the system of distribution relations that has developed in society at a given historical stage, to the interests, needs, ethical norms and rules of members of society. Each of the individuals prefers his position (welfare) to any other and does not seek to change it through the redistribution of income (redistribution is possible only with the mutual consent of individuals).
The opinion of the majority about social justice is transformed into value judgments of economists, legislators, voters, on the basis of which it is possible to build various social welfare functions that reflect the welfare of society as the welfare of its constituent individuals. The optimal distribution of resources will be one that society recognizes not only as efficient, but also socially just. The lower the degree of inequality in society, the higher the social welfare, which serves as one of the justifications for the need for state intervention in the redistribution of income and the achievement of a certain level of distributive justice.
Depending on the chosen model of state development (neoliberal or social-market), the achieved level economic development, the development of the democratic institution of civil society, the ethical norms and rules adopted in society, the degree of social tension and other socio-economic factors, the state chooses a social optimum that is not something frozen, given once and for all. It is constantly changing under the influence of the above factors.
Such a process of “groping” for a balance between justice and efficiency is especially characteristic of unstable, unstable transitional economic systems, which, in a short historical period of time, very quickly go from an egalitarian (egalitarian) distribution to its extremely uneven forms.
In Russia, this transitional period was marked by a sharp stratification of the population according to economic status.
Status (from Latin status - state, position) is a position, a position in any hierarchy, structure, system. Socioeconomic status is the status of an individual, determined by a combination of various social and economic indicators: income, social origin, education, professional prestige.
Over the past 10-15 years, the former high level of education of the adult population has slightly decreased in Russian society for many years. According to the 1994 micro-census, only 24 out of 1,000 people aged 15 to 50 did not have primary education, and 31.7% of people over 20 had higher or secondary specialized education. Most of them were engaged in intellectual, managerial work and had almost equal social status: the relative position of an individual or group, determined by social characteristics (economic status, profession, qualifications, education, etc.). In addition, almost the entire population, especially in cities, lives in the same apartment buildings, go to the same shops, use public transport and have not lost the sense of "equality" inherited from the Soviet period.
However, the determining factor of differentiation is increasingly becoming the level of income and the availability of property. The level of economic status of an individual, social or demographic group of the population, determined by income and property, constitutes their economic status.
The economic status of an individual, family or community, the country as a whole differs. Considering changes in the economic status of certain groups of the population over time, we can talk about the dynamics of economic stratification, or economic stratification, of society. The term "stratification", which came from the dictionary of natural sciences, retained its double meaning. On the one hand, this is a process that is continuously going on in society. On the other hand, it is also the result of a process of changing the economic situation of various individuals, groups and strata.
The process of economic stratification of society is not over, it continues. An analysis of the sources of income and their correlation shows that the share of income from property and entrepreneurial activity has increased in the total amount. They are mainly received by the richest stratum of the population and residents of large cities. At the same time, with an increase in the share of income from property, the share of wages decreases, and these payments are received by the bulk of the population.
The reasons for the differences in the economic status of population groups were:
source of income and their level;
distribution of employees by sectors of the economy;
region of residence;
position held.
The main "hot spot" of social development is the fact of inequality in the distribution of wealth, property, rights and control over capital. As a consequence of this inequality - the stratification of the population according to the level of material security with the polarization of income.
Sorokin distinguishes two types of fluctuations (deviations from the norm, fluctuations) in the economic status of society.
The first type is the fluctuation of the economic status in general:
a) an increase in economic well-being;
b) a decrease in economic well-being.
The second type is the fluctuation of the height and profile of economic stratification within a society:
a) the rise of the economic pyramid;
b) flattening of the economic pyramid.
Let us consider the first type of fluctuation. An analysis of the well-being of various societies and groups within them shows that:
the wealth and income of different societies varies greatly from one country, one group to another. This applies not only to territories, but also to various families, groups, social strata;
the average level of well-being and income in the same society is not constant, they change over time.
There is hardly a family whose income and level of material well-being would remain unchanged for many years and during the life of several generations. Material "rises" and "falls" are sometimes sharp, significant, sometimes small and gradual.
Speaking about fluctuations in the economic status of the second type, it is necessary to pay attention to whether the values of the height and profile of economic stratification are constant or variable in time from group to group and within one group; if they change, how periodically and regularly; whether there is a permanent direction of these changes and what is it, if any.
Scientists have long been occupied with these questions, and they have proposed various hypotheses about this. Thus, the essence of the hypothesis of V. Pareto (1848 - 1923) was the assertion that the profile of economic stratification or the particular distribution of income in society is something constant. The hypothesis of K. Marx (1818 - 1883) consisted in the assertion that in European countries there is a process of deepening economic differentiation.
Life has shown that although there is no strict tendency to either decrease or increase in economic inequality, the hypothesis of fluctuations in the height and profile of economic stratification is legitimate, stratification grows to some degree of saturation, a point of excessive tension. For different societies, this point is different and depends on their size, environment, the nature of distribution relations, human material, the height of the bar of needs, national historical development, culture, and so on. As soon as a society approaches its point of overstrain, social tension is created, which ends in a revolution or timely reform.
In the early 90s. 20th century in Russia there has been a radical ideological, socio-political reorientation in the understanding of justice and expediency in the movement towards social equality, from social homogeneity to the promotion of social differentiation with a focus on the values of entrepreneurship.
There was a deep economic stratification, mass impoverishment of the population, destruction of social infrastructure. Weakened the real guarantees of social protection of the population due to the fact that the system fell out of the main, lower link of social protection - the enterprise. Social protection population in the absence of sufficient economic resources concentrated in the hands of the state.
Thus, it can be stated that the reasons for the depth of economic stratification in the transition period lie in the destruction of the previously established correlation in wages and the redistribution of property.
The stratification of society was facilitated by the privatization of housing, when 20% of people standing in line for municipal housing lost all hope of getting it. There was a wealth inequality. In 1992, when the state savings of the bulk of the population were devalued, the "dealers" got out of state control and began to receive exorbitant profits. Wealth was formed (and continues to be formed) against the background of the total impoverishment of the bulk of the population. Economic stratification was facilitated by the introduction of a single tax rate on individuals - 13%, while the previously progressive taxation scale to some extent redistributed income towards a low-paid worker.
The segments of the population that now need social support will in the future require special programs of social rehabilitation, the restoration of their vitality, because about 10 years of living at the subsistence (physiological) minimum will not pass for the country without negative consequences.
The reason for economic stratification is income inequality. The main indicator of poverty is the average per capita income, if it is below the subsistence minimum budget and below the average income in the region. The significance of this indicator for social work is extremely important, because it is a criterion for determining standards in the system of targeted socio-economic support for the poor.
This system assumes:
conducting a systematic analysis of families and their distribution by average per capita income, taking into account the socio-economic potential of the family;
determination of those in need of targeted assistance not by categories of the population (pensioners, disabled people, children, etc.), but by the main criterion - the average per capita income and its proportionality with the subsistence minimum budget in the region;
creating conditions in the regions to prevent poverty.
The concept of economic status is closely related to the concept of social mobility. Social mobility is a set of social movements of people in society, i.e. changes in their status. There are two main types of mobility: vertical and horizontal.
Vertical social mobility is associated with the movement of an individual or group in a system of social hierarchy, including a change in social status. Horizontal social mobility - with the movement of an individual or group in a social structure without changing social status. Changes in economic status tend to promote vertical mobility for a person or group.
Socio-economic status in social work is considered as the most important criterion for a targeted approach in supporting the population and improving its well-being.
The government has developed a strategy for the socio-economic development of Russia for the period up to 2010. Its goal is to consistently improve the standard of living of the population based on the self-determination of each citizen and reduce social inequality, but the key factor hindering the qualitative renewal of the country and its economy remains the polarization of Russian society. The main strata and groups of the population differ in value orientations, lifestyle, style and norms of behavior. Often the reason for this is the polarization of income, different levels of well-being. Wealthy social groups are opposed to the bulk of the population.
Poverty and need have become a reproducible stable reality for millions of people who find themselves in extreme conditions: not only for the unemployed, refugees, citizens with many children, the disabled, disabled pensioners and others, but also for those who previously provided for themselves and their families - for economically active population. Their low income and poverty was formed due to the fact that the cost of labor has fallen so much that for the majority of working people, the payment for their work has ceased to cover even the minimum means for supporting a family.
The definition of those who belong to the category of the poor is ambiguous and depends on the chosen method of assessing poverty, of which there are several in world practice:
statistical, when 10-20% of the population groups with the lowest total per capita incomes, or a part of these groups, are considered as poor;
normative (according to nutritional standards and other standards of the minimum consumer set), otherwise - the minimum consumer basket;
the deprivation method, which calculates the underconsumption of the most important goods and products;
stratification, when the poor include people who are objectively limited in their ability to self-sufficiency: the elderly, the disabled, children without parents, or social orphans;
heuristic, or subjective, focusing on assessments of public opinion or assessments of the respondents themselves in the sufficiency or insufficiency of their standard of living;
economic, which defines the category of those poor in the state's resource capabilities aimed at maintaining their material security.
Most often, when calculating the poverty rate, a more convenient and tangible indicator of the absolute poverty line is taken as the basis, which, for more accurate estimates, is included in more complex and detailed poverty indices that take into account the degree of inequality in society, the distribution of income among the poor, their share in the total population, income gap of the poor (the amount of income that needs to be replenished by the poor in order to bring them beyond the absolute poverty line). The most famous and widespread poverty index is the A. Sen index:
Sen = DE G + DP(1 - G),
where Sen is the poverty index; DE - the proportion of the poor as the ratio of the number of people below the poverty line to the total population; DP - expenditure deficit as the sum of expenditure deficits (% of GDP - gross domestic product) that must be provided to the poor in order for them to reach the poverty line; G - Gini index as a measure of the degree of inequality in society.
The poverty level combines several indicators and is to some extent subjective, depending on how the state defines the poverty line.
Depending on political decisions, the poverty line can arbitrarily move up or down, thereby changing the perception of the number of poor.
Calculated on the basis of the cost of the minimum, physiological consumer basket, the subsistence minimum, on the basis of which the absolute poverty line is set, makes it possible to underestimate the number of the poor and, accordingly, to reduce government spending to combat poverty. Such a definition of the poverty line was carried out in the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of March 2, 1992 No. 210 "On the system of minimum consumer budgets of the population of the Russian Federation." For the period of overcoming the crisis state of the economy, the Government of the Russian Federation was instructed to determine the level (budget) of the subsistence (physiological) minimum, differentiated by the main social groups and characterizing the minimum allowable limits for the consumption of the most important material goods and services.
The peculiarity of the present time is that the majority of the poor in Russia are families with children, as a rule, with working parents (at the same time, many of them work in more than one place, but at the same time, many of them do not receive the money they earn on time).
Poverty is not uniform. There are the most severe of her condition. There are groups that balance on the upper poverty line, from which the budget for the minimum material security (BMMO) begins. The latter, according to the accepted methodology, is about twice as high as the subsistence minimum and testifies not to extreme, physiological, but social poverty, within which more than 60% of Russians now live. According to the materials of the sample survey of household budgets and the macroeconomic indicator of average per capita cash income, as of January 1, 2010, the population with cash incomes below the subsistence level amounted to 18.5 million people.
The social contract consolidates society, business and the state on the basis of the principle of "welfare for the majority". In relation to society, the state assumes real responsibility for creating conditions for raising the standard of living, providing the necessary social guarantees, rights, freedoms and security of citizens, receiving legitimacy and public support in return. The success of achieving the goal is to ensure prosperity for the majority of the population and the formation of a massive middle class.
Among the measures taken is the balance of low wages and low consumer prices, especially for food, goods for children, medicines, the availability of socio-cultural and other services. Therefore, adopted in 2001, the "Strategy for the socio-economic development of Russia for the period up to 2010" offers one of the conditions "bringing the state's social obligations in line with its material capabilities." Extremely stringent requirements are set for economic growth in the next decade, not less than 5-6% on average per year. This will provide an opportunity to bring the population below the poverty line to a decent standard of living, to increase the socio-economic potential of the family as the main economic unit of society. Currently, the development of a strategy for the socio-economic development of the Russian Federation until 2020 is underway. QUESTIONS AND TASKS 1.
What is “material well-being” and how is it characterized? 2.
Name the quantitative and qualitative indicators of the well-being of the population and disclose them. 3.
Expand the essence of socio-economic consequences and indicators of differentiation of incomes of the population. 4.
Describe the socio-economic status of social work clients. 5.
What is the reason for the growing importance of the economic function of the family in a market economy? 6.
Why is real income a general indicator of living standards? 7.
Reveal the essence and significance of the socio-economic potential of the family. eight.
Specify the factors influencing the dynamics of the material condition of the population. nine.
What is socioeconomic status and why is it a criterion for a targeted approach in social work?